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COPYRIGHT DEPQSm 



THE BOOK OF CAMPING 












THE NEWEST BORZOI BOOKS 

ASPHALT 

By Orrick Johns 

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By Dorothy Richardson 

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By Coulson T, Cade 

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By William English Walling 

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THE JOURNAL OF LEO TOLSTOI 
First Volume (1895-1899) 

THE SHIELD 

Edited by Gorky, Andreyev and Sologuh 

THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF A SUPER- 
TRAMP 
By William H. Davies 
With a Preface by Bernard Shaw 











The 

BOOK OF CAMPING 

A. HYA TT VERRILL 







NEW YORK ■ ALFRED A. KNOPF -1917 
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 



COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY 
A. HYATT VERRILL 






1/ 

JUL -2 1917 

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 

©C1.A467693 



CONTENTS 
PART I. CAMPS AND CAMPING 

PAGE 

Chapter I. Preparing to Go Camping 9 

What camping really means. Choosing 
campmates. Camping outfits. Clothing. Pro- 
visions. 

Chapter II. How and Where to Camp 36 

Where to camp. Selecting a camp site. 
What to look for. The best camp to use. 
Building a lean-to. Shacks. Tepees. Tents. 
Permanent camps. Canoe camps. Gypsying 
by auto. 

Chapter III. Camp Housekeeping . 64 

Building fires. Fires without matches. 
Woods and their properties. Useful plants and 
trees. Camp cookery. Camp furnishings. 
Making beds. Handy hints to campers. 

PART II. TRAILING AND 
TRAMPING 

Chapter IV. Trailing and Tramping 107 

Packing. Trails. Blazing a way. Direc- 
tion and distance. Getting * lost. Signs and 
signals. General woodcraft. Training ear 
and eye. 



Contents 

PAGE 

Chapter V. How to Trap and Why . 135 

Trapping for food. Living off the land. 
Fishing. Curing and tanning skins. Moc- 
casins. Camp-made utensils. First aid. Poi- 
sons. Insect bites. Accidents. Drowning. 

Chapter VI. Emergency Hints . .170 

Accidents, Drowning. First Aid. Bandag- 
ing. Poisons and antidotes. Insect and snake 
bites. 



PART I 

CAMPS AND CAMPING 



THE 
BOOK OF CAMPING 

CHAPTER I 

PREPARING TO GO CAMPING 

THE term "camping out" covers a multi- 
tude of meanings. To many, life any- 
where in the open is "camping out," 
and so-called "camps" are often commodious, 
comfortable, modern houses with electric lights, 
running water and all modern conveniences and 
are merely dubbed "camps" because they are 
built in the woods or away from settlements. 
Many people speak of "camping out" for the 
summer when they dwell in a flimsy tent on the 
beach or near the water at some crowded summer 
resort, while still others rent a shack or a farm 
house and purchase their supplies at the village 
store, and delude themselves into thinking they 
have "camped" for the summer. 

9 



10 The Book of Camping 

But none of these methods of spending a few 
weeks or months is really camping out in the true 
sense of the term. To really camp one should 
be beyond the reach of motor cars and dance 
music, beyond sight of fashionable clothes and 
crowded summer resorts, and far enough from 
civilisation to make one more or less dependent 
upon the resources of nature and one's own skill 
and knowledge of woodcraft. 

To be sure, camping out under such conditions 
necessitates a certain amount of discomfort and 
perhaps some hardships, but to overcome these, 
to make oneself a home and to provide all the 
necessities of life by one's own efforts and skill — 
in this lies the real enjoyment of camping out. 

In order to do this, however, the camper must 
know something of woodcraft, must select his 
camping place and his camp with intelligence 
and must choose his or her camp-mates with care, 
for a poorly selected camp site may spoil all one's 
pleasure, grumbling or lazy companions are 
worse than none at all and a camp must be pro- 
vided which is as comfortable and secure in foul 
weather as in fair. 

There are many kinds of camps, each adapted 
to some special purpose, certain conditions and 



Preparing to Go Camping 11 

surroundings, or which possesses certain advan- 
tages. 

There is a vast difference between camps for 
a permanent residence of several weeks or months 
and camps erected merely as shelters for the night, 
and before deciding what camp to use, what sup- 
plies you will require or where you are to camp, 
you should look into the matter thoroughly, de- 
termine where and how long you are going to 
camp and learn all you can of the surroundings, 
character and resources of the country you are 
to invade. 

You can go camping in boat, in canoe, in car- 
riage or by automobile, or you can pack your 
belongings on your back and tramp, pitching 
your tent or making your primitive home wher- 
ever night finds you or humour invites you to stop 
and tarry. 

We often hear some one state that a certain 
type of camp is the best, but as a matter of fact 
there is no "best" camp. Tents, tepees, lean-tos, 
log and slab houses, shacks, wattled and thatched 
huts, even caves and dugouts, have their uses, 
and each can be used to best advantage only 
under certain definite conditions and for certain 
purposes. Sometimes several different kinds of 



12 The Book of Camping 

camps may be used on a single camping trip, 
especially if one-night camps are made and the 
campers travel by boat, canoe or motor car. In 
a densely wooded country far from the settle- 
ments, log houses, lean-tos or similar camps may 
prove the best and easiest to make; in a district 
where timber is scarce, or where one is not per- 
mitted to fell trees, tents, tepees or other portable 
shelters are often advisable, and in places where 
there is no timber these are necessary. But to 
carry tents or portable camps is very difficult even 
with a canoe or other means of transportation, 
and the space which such a portable camp occu- 
pies may usually be used to greater advantage for 
other commodities, unless, as already mentioned, 
it is impossible to provide other means of shelter. 

CHOOSING CAMPMATES 

But even before deciding upon the type of 
camp you will use, you should decide upon your 
companions for your outing and should select 
the scene of your camping operations. 

Many people are excellent companions in the 
city, or even on a pleasure trip, a motor tour or a 
yachting cruise, who are impossible when camp- 
ing out. Avoid going camping with irritable, 



Preparing to Go Camping 13 

impatient, lazy, super-sensitive, nervous, peevish, 
superstitious, or over-fastidious individuals. 
Don't expect a man who drinks to excess, or one 
who is lost without his club, his evening clothes 
or his daily papers, to make a good campmate. 
Camping calls for old clothes, lack of luxuries 
and conveniences, primitive life, and unfailing 
good temper and cheerfulness under all condi- 
tions, as well as plenty of hard work and a will- 
ingness to do one's share of anything and every- 
thing without being asked. Nervous or super- 
stitious people have no place in the woods. A 
thunder storm, the cry of a wild animal or a 
night bird, or even the silence of the dark woods 
may drive a nervous person to distraction, re- 
gardless of how much they enjoy the life during 
the daytime; while superstitious persons will 
find omens for good or bad in so many perfectly 
natural occurrences that they become a nuisance 
to others and are miserable themselves. 

Over-indulgence in liquor is bad enough any- 
where, but in the woods, or in camps, it is a real 
menace. Irritable individuals will find plenty 
to complain about, even in the best regulated 
camps, and patience is a prime necessity when 
one is camping out. One must take things as 



14 The Book of Camping 

they are, not as one would wish, when in the 
woods, and the man or woman who is disgusted 
if insects or twigs get into one's food, or who 
cannot enjoy a meal served in tin plates and with 
the ground for a dining table, or who cannot 
sleep without sheets and soft pillows, or who can- 
not put up with the thousand and one incon- 
veniences and petty annoyances of primitive life ; 
will find no pleasure and no enjoyment in camp- 
ing out and will make life miserable for every 
one else. 

Above all avoid the shirker — the lazy individ- 
ual — as you would the plague. After a long 
day's tramp there is camp to be made, firewood 
to be cut, fires to be built, food to be cooked, 
and many other chores to be done, and the fellow 
who throws himself upon the ground and takes 
his ease, while his comrades do the hard and 
necessary work, is no sort of a chap to have 
along. If a camping trip is to be enjoyable and 
a success, each member of the party must do his 
or her share of labour, and all must be willing to 
work for the common good; it is a communistic 
life and there is no place for a shirker. 

Of course in a permanent camp the duties may 
be simplified and equally divided and each mem- 



Preparing to Go Camping 15 

ber may have his or her own regular work to do. 
Even where the days are spent in tramping or 
travelling and camps are made each night, it is 
a good plan to have certain duties allotted to cer- 
tain members of the party. One will be a better 
axeman than another, one will be a better forager, 
another a better cook, etc. Even when there are 
but two in the party it saves much discussion and 
friction if each knows he has certain definite 
duties of his own, and moreover the work is made 
easier and quicker when such an arrangement is 
made. In every camp there will be trials and 
disappointments, bad weather and hard work. 
If these are taken good-naturedly and smilingly 
and are overcome, they will prove but an added 
zest to the outing. Make the best of everything 
and do your share, is the first and invariable rule 
of life in the woods. 

When you have selected your companions the 
next important matter is to choose a leader, for 
without a head, without some one to direct, the 
trip will surely be a failure. 

For a leader select the one who has had the 
most experience in out-of-door life and wood- 
craft, and if there is no one in the party who has 
had experience in such matters choose the one 



l6 The Book of Camping 

who is the most practical, who is the calmest and 
the best natured, and who possesses sound judg- 
ment. In other words, one to whom you would 
naturally look for leadership in any undertak- 
ing. 

Having selected the various members of the 
party and their leader, all should make up their 
minds to follow his directions and abide by his 
decisions implicitly, unless he shows himself ig- 
norant, overbearing or incompetent. Neverthe- 
less, it^s a good plan always to hold a council or 
meeting when any question arises and if the 
majority of the party do not agree with the leader 
he should waive his authority. But of course 
this does not apply to questions where practical 
knowledge or experience justifies the leader in 
overruling the ideas of his companions or where 
he feels that his companions are endangered by 
their ignorance of conditions. 

OUTFITS 

The question of campmates and leader being 
settled, the most important matter to be consid- 
ered is that of outfit. By outfit I mean clothing, 
provisions, camp-kits, tools, weapons and in fact 
everything which is to be taken on the trip. But 



Preparing to Go Camping 17 

here again enters the question of where you are 
to camp, the character of the country and the 
length of time you are to be away, and whether 
you are to tramp, motor, canoe or travel by wagon. 

Moreover, tastes differ; some people are will- 
ing to "tote" more than others for the sake of 
greater comfort, and a great deal depends upon 
the amount of money one is willing to spend. If 
you are to camp within easy reach of settlements 
or villages, near a well-travelled road or on the 
shores of a lake or river, or are to have a perma- 
nent camp, almost any amount of luxuries and 
conveniences may be taken along. On the other 
hand, if you are to tramp and make camp where 
fancy wills, you should cut down your outfit to 
the barest necessities. Even the lightest of loads 
will feel heavy enough to make your back and 
shoulders ache at the end of a day's tramp 
through the woods, and one really needs very little. 

An experienced woodsman will get along very 
comfortably with a knife and axe for tools, a tin 
pie-plate for cooking and eating utensils, a box 
of matches, some flour, coffee and bacon and the 
clothing he wears, but the amateur will scarcely 
be able to get on with such an outfit. 

It is unwise to divide up the outfit for several 



i8 The Book of Camping 

people and allow a definite amount to each one 
and it^s much better for every member of the 
party to carry his or her own personal belongings 
with the exception of certain things which must 
be for common use. It's not necessary to carry 
as many axes as there are people, nor as many 
guns, etc., and the food can be added to the loads 
of those who are not burdened with axes, firearms 
and similar articles. If there is one outfit for the 
crowd and this is divided up among the in- 
dividual members there will always be complaint 
or dissatisfaction, for some one is bound to think 
his load is more than his share. If each one totes 
his own outfit, however, he has only himself to 
blame for its weight. 

The first and most important item of an outfit 
is the pack in which the goods are to be carried. 
There is an endless number of styles of packs on 
the market and each section of the country has its 
favourite. Some old campaigners prefer birch 
bark boxes or baskets, others knapsacks, others 
blanket rolls similar to those used by soldiers, 
others swear by baskets and still others think noth- 
ing equals the canvas pack of the north woods. 
So, too, the method of carrying differs. Indians, 
and many white guides as well, carry heavy loads 



Preparing to Go Camping 19 

upon their backs supported by a band across the 
forehead ; others support their loads entirely from 
their shoulders, while others use shoulder and 
chest straps. Personally, I prefer the simple 
canvas pack with shoulder and breast straps and 
I have tried nearly every type known. This style 
of pack (Fig. 1) may be purchased ready-made 
for about $3, but they are very simple and may 
easily be made at home from stout canvas, khaki, 
or cotton drill. The size depends largely upon 
the amount you wish to carry and your own size, 
but 16x24 inches square and 8 inches deep is 
large enough, and for boys' use a pack 14x20x6 
will be ample. Such a pack will easily hold 
everything one really needs for a long trip and 
when filled will weigh all youll want to carry on 
a day's tramp. 

Aside from the pack you will require axes — 
one if there are but two in the party and two or 
more if there are a number of campers. Don't 
try to economise on the axe; it's a mighty impor- 
tant item and the very best axe you can purchase 
should be selected. Don't make the mistake of 
getting an axe either too large or too small. 
Hatchets come in handy, but a good two pound 
or two-and-a-half pound axe with full length 



20 The Book of Camping 

handle is the best and most useful tool you can 
have in a timbered country. Another extremely 
useful tool, especially in a brushy country, is the 
machete — the long heavy-bladed knife of Latin 
America (Fig. 2). Where there are two or more 
in the party it's a good plan for one to carry an 
axe, another a machete and another a hatchet, 
for each tool has its uses and advantages. In 
many districts a machete is almost a necessity, 
and if I were compelled to choose between an axe 
or a machete for all around use, I'd take the 
machete every time. This instrument, in the 
hands of one accustomed to its use, will serve 
almost any purpose from that of an axe to a tooth- 
pick. They are ideal for cutting brush, vines 
and brambles, for blazing trees, for opening a 
trail and for lopping off branches and even large 
trees may be felled with a machete when you 
know how to handle it. They are light and eas- 
ily carried, are handier than an axe or hatchet 
and are cheap, costing with sheath about $2. 

For the balance of your outfit, aside from 
clothing and provisions, the following should be 
included, but of course some items may be omitted 
and others added according to conditions. In a 
fishless district it obviously would be useless to 




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22 The Book of Camping 

carry fishing tackle; where there is no game, or 
where laws prevent shooting or trapping, guns 
and ammunition are unnecessary, and many of 
the articles will serve for the entire party. 

A waterproof cylindrical matchsafe and 
matches. 

A combination knife and fork (Fig. J) or a 
common steel knife and fork. 

A teaspoon and a tablespoon. 

A good axe-stone, preferably a carborundum 
stone. 

A bag containing thread, needles, wax, buttons, 
pins, shoelaces, etc. 

A roll, or hank, of good strong line, or braided 
cotton twine. 

Fish hooks, lines and sinkers. 

A reliable pocket compass. 

A good heavy knife, a sailor's sheath knife is 
excellent. 

A folding rubber, or collapsible, drinking cup. 

A tin cup and a deep tin pie-plate. 

Half a dozen or more candles. 

Some assorted or mixed wire nails from 3 to 
12 penny. 



Preparing to Go Camping 23 

All the above are individual necessities and in 
addition you should of course have a hair-brush 
and comb, toothbrush, shaving utensils — ^if you 
intend to shave — and a small pocket mirror. 
The latter will prove very useful if you get some- 
thing in your eye; it is valuable for signalling and 
is more convenient than a pool of water. 

If you are alone, or if there are several in the 
party, the following should be provided but where 
there are two or more campers these articles need 
not be duplicated, but may be for common use: 

About one hundred feet of light, strong rope — 
braided is the best. A medicine case and emer- 
gency kit. 

The rope will weigh little and should be strong 
enough to bear the weight of any member of the 
party with safety. It invariably should be kept 
neatly coiled and ready for use as it may save 
human life more than once and will prove inval- 
uable in a hundred places and a thousand ways. 

You may tramp, camp and live in the woods 
for years and never have occasion to use medi- 
cines, stimulants, bandages or first-aid, but acci- 
dents will happen and when you are hurt or sick 
in the woods a bit of medicine, a bandage or some 



24 The Book of Camping 

other simple remedy or aid will be worth more 
than all the rest of your outfit put together. 

Old campers and woodsmen may pooh-pooh 
the idea of a medicine kit, but many a life would 
have been saved if such men always carried sim- 
ple remedies and first-aid outfits. On more than 
one occasion I have saved my own life by means 
of a pocket emergency case and more than one old 
woodsman has thanked God I carried it with me. 
If there are several in the party, have one mem- 
ber in charge of the medicines day and night, 
and allow no one else to handle it, save in case 
of emergency. In this way you'll always know 
where the things are when you want them and 
when you do want them you'll want them in a 
hurry. 

The exact contents of such a kit depends upon 
the country and the trip, for certain districts have 
certain diseases and certain insects, and acci- 
dents are more liable to occur in some places and 
under some conditions than in others. Avoid 
liquid medicines as far as possible and use tab- 
lets and pills. The following is a list of the most 
important things for the kit and will be found 
very satisfactory for all around use in most places 
and under ordinary conditions. 



Preparing to Go Camping 25 

Quinine pills or tablets 

Rhubarb pills or tablets 

Bicarbonate of soda or soda-mint tablets 

Bismuth subnitrate 

Chlorate of potash 

Warburg's tincture 

Sun cholera pills 

Several rolls of antiseptic bandages 

A box of zinc ointment 

A bottle of Zeroform or Iodoform 

Permanganate of potash 

Some powerful stimulant 

Adhesive surgeons' plaster (Red Cross is 
good) but nop courtplaster. 

The most convenient form in which to carry 
these is in the little pocket leather cases that cost 
from $1 to $5 each. 

If you object to alcoholic stimulants take your 
physician's advice as to what to carry to take its 
place, and if you don't believe in medicine your- 
self carry the outfit for the benefit of those who 
do. Moreover, your ideas may change suddenly 
if you are taken ill or are injured far from 
civilisation. 

A stimulant may save a life if one of the party 



26 The Book of Camping 

is nearly drowned or faint from loss of blood or a 
broken limb. The permanganate of potash dis- 
solved in water will relieve pain from insect 
bites and ivy poison, and where poisonous 
snakes occur it is the best and safest remedy 
known for their bites. Antiseptic tablets are good 
things to have along, for a very slight scratch, cut, 
or bruise may result seriously if neglected, and 
an ounce of prevention is worth countless tons of 
cure in the woods. Be sure and have everything 
labelled and mark all poisons in heavy black let- 
ters and with a skull and hones. If you are not 
accustomed to using medicines have your physi- 
cian give you directions for using the various 
remedies and keep written directions in the case 
with the medicines. 

In addition to all the above there are many 
other light, simple and cheap articles which will 
add greatly to the enjoyment of camp life and 
which you may take or not as you choose. Such 
are folding lanterns {Fig, 4) of mica and alu- 
minum and costing about $1.50 each and which 
weigh but a few ounces and fold flat in compact 
form when not in use. Japanese messkits {Fig. 
5) which cost about $2 and are very convenient 
as they are made of aluminum and fold into very 



Preparing to Go Camping 27 

small space. Campfire grates (Fig. 6) which 
cost $1 and save many spilled cups of coffee and 
many a burned pancake. These are but a few 
of the numerous handy articles which any dealer 
in sporting goods and campers' outfits can sup- 
ply. But don't load yourself down and clutter 
yourself up with a lot of these things — ^there is 
no end to them — unless you are going by canoe, 
auto or other conveyance, or are planning to stay 
in one spot for some time. 

I have mentioned a match box, but under the 
best of conditions and with every precaution, 
matches will at times get wet and useless, and 
hence it is a wise plan to provide against such a 
contingency. In another chapter I will explain 
how to build fires without matches, but a very 
simple and useful article which will save much 
trouble and annoyance is a mechanical lighter 
(Fig. 7), Do not carry one of the lighters 
which must be filled with gasoline or alcohol but 
the kind which uses a plain cotton fuse or tinder. 
With such a tinder a fire may be kindled with a 
flint and steel, but the tinder should invariably 
be carried in a water-tight metal box. For match 
boxes use rubber rather than metal for these will 
float if dropped overboard. 



28 The Book of Camping 

The pie plate and tin cup will do very well for 
all cooking purposes; the plate serving as a fry- 
ing plan or skillet by providing it with a handle 
made by splitting the end of a stick, slipping it 
over the edge of the plate and driving a nail 
through it, while the cup will serve to cook coffee, 
boil eggs or even make a stew. 

But of course, if you wish, you can carry other 
cooking utensils ad libitum, especially if you don't 
depend upon shank's mare for your transporta- 
tion. 

CLOTHING 

To many, especially those who are new at 
camping, the matter of clothing is of very great 
moment. The average prospective camper looks 
over the catalogue of some sporting goods' dealer 
and finds that the beautifully made and exceed- 
ingly expensive clothing will cost more than all 
the rest of the outfit, or even more than the whole 
trip. This is a great mistake. The woods are 
no place for fancy dress, and as a rule the high- 
priced clothing designed — ostensibly — for camp- 
ing, is impractical and utterly worthless for real, 
dyed-in-the-wool roughing it. Provide the 
stoutest, most comfortable and cheapest things 



Preparing to Go. Camping 29 

possible. Khaki is good, but any stout, easy gar- 
ments will serve every purpose. Don't mind if 
they are old, stained or worn — ^by the time you've 
been in the woods a week you'll never know the 
difference. Use woollen undergarments — in the 
woods one is often wet and dry by turns and cot- 
ton is worthless under such conditions. Stout 
easy shoes or knee-boots should be worn and moc- 
casins will be found very comfortable about camp, 
when canoeing or in a dry country. If you are 
going to a rocky, mountainous district or must 
ford streams, have hob-nails in your boots and 
see that your footgear is always kept well greased 
and soft and pliable. Carry at least one change 
of undergarments, one of outer clothing if you can 
manage it, and plenty of socks or stockings. 
Blankets are not essential, although comfortable 
and useful. A light, all-wool blanket and a very 
light rubber blanket add greatly to one's health 
and comfort and don't add much to the load, and 
if you are travelling by canoe or other conveyance 
by all means take blankets along. If the rubber 
blanket has a slit in the centre — with the edges 
bound with tape to prevent tearing — it will serve 
for a cape or poncho by slipping it over your head. 
Mosquito head nets should also be included if you 



30 The Book of Camping 

are to camp where gnats, sand flies, black flies 
or mosquitos are found, and there are mighty few 
places in the woods where these pests don't swarm 
in summer. 

No two people can agree as to the amount of 
clothes they need and each must suit himself in 
this matter; the main thing is to be warm, com- 
fortable and well protected, and of all things be 
sure that your footgear does not cramp, blister or 
chafe your feet. Don't start off with new shoes 
and don't wear silk socks or thin socks. Good, 
heavy wool is the best material. What you want 
is durability and comfort, not appearance. 

PROVISIONS 

Finally comes the matter of provisions. If you 
are going into a good fish or game country you 
will not require such a large stock or variety of 
food as in a district where you cannot hunt or 
fish to eke out your larder. If there are farm 
houses or villages within reach you can get along 
with even less, whereas, if you are travelling up 
rivers or over watercourses by canoe or boat, or 
are going to your camping place by vehicle, take 
along all you can conveniently carry. No hard 
or fast rule can be given as to the provisions you'll 



Preparing to Go Camping 31 

require or the articles which are most essential, 
aside from coffee, sugar, salt, lard (or cottolene), 
pepper, bacon, salt pork and a few such things 
which are about as necessary to camp life as an 
axe or matches. 

But the following are all excellent, reliable, 
useful things and will serve as a guide to what 
camp provisions should consist of: 

Erbswurst, A composition of pea-meal, meat 
and vegetables compressed into a sausage-shaped 
roll and adopted by nearly all armies as the near- 
est approach to a perfect, all-around food. May 
be eaten raw or cooked in many ways. 

Soup Tablets. Various styles and flavours and 
very useful. Dissolved in hot water they form a 
delicious soup which can be prepared in a few 
moments. 

Dried Vegetables. Best of vegetables evapo- 
rated and compressed. Equal to ten or twelve 
times their weight in fresh vegetables and are 
easily prepared. Potatoes, beans, spinach, car- 
rots, cabbage, celery, onions, leeks, turnips, pars- 
nips and many other varieties. By far the best 
form in which to carry vegetables. 

Truemilk. A dried milk and superior to evap- 
orated or condensed milk for camping purposes. 



32 The Book of Camping 

Army Bread or ' 'Hardtack" is the best, form of 
breadstuff for a camp trip. 

Truegg, or dried eggs, are delicious and most 
convenient. Made from strictly fresh eggs 
beaten, evaporated and with all the properties of 
fresh eggs. Dissolved in water before using. 
Can be made into omelettes, scrambled eggs, etc., 
and will keep in any climate. One pound equals 
four dozen fresh eggs. 

Crystalose, is more compact and convenient 
than sugar, but does not possess all the properties 
of sugar. Useful where the outfit must be lim- 
ited and everything reduced to the least possible 
weight. 

I have often been asked how much food should 
be carried per person on a camping trip. This is 
one of the most difficult questions to answer, for 
appetites vary and what would be ample for one 
person might leave another half starved. The 
following has been decided upon by many ex- 
perienced woodsmen as the quantity of food re- 
quired for one individual for two weeks. If you 
are a light eater you can take less, if a heavy eater, 
more ; but don't forget that your appetite will in- 
crease in the woods and don't overlook the possi- 
bilities of fish, game and farmers' supplies. If 



Preparing to Go Camping 33 

you err either way, take too much rather than too 

little however ; in fact my advice is to take all you 

can carry. Even if it does weigh a lot at the 

beginning you can console yourself with the 
thought that it will grow lighter each day. 

Flour or its equivalents, 6 lbs. 



Corn Meal, 


2 lbs. 


Beans, 


2 lbs. 


Erbswurst, 


M lb. 


Soup Tablets, 


y2 lb. 


Sugar, 


2 lbs. 


Baking Powder, 


M lb. 


Coffee, 


>4 lb. 


Butter, 


1 lb. 


Saltpork, 


2y2 lbs. 


Evaporated Milk, 


lyi lbs. 


Dried Fruits, 


1 lb. 


Salt, 


M lb. 


Chocolate or cocoa 


M lb. 


Tea, 


J4 lb. 


Bacon, 


V/i lbs. 


Dried Potatoes, 


1 lb. 


Dried Vegetables, 


y2 lb. 


Dried Eggs, 


iy4 lbs. 


Shelled Nuts, 


y2 lb. 



34 The Book of Camping 

By all means provide a supply of sweet or milk 
chocolate. It is one of the best and most nourish- 
ing of foods. A small cake of chocolate will keep 
one from hunger and fatigue in a marvellous 
manner and I have often tramped from dawn 
until dark with no other food than a cake of sweet 
chocolate. Nuts are also very compact food and 
peanut butter is excellent. Carry all flour and 
dry groceries in waterproof bags, for tins are cum- 
bersome and are hard to pack well. Bags for this 
purpose may be made easily from waterproof 
canvas which can be purchased of any dealer in 
tents or sporting goods. 

At last, when you have selected your clothing, 
have obtained your outfit and have decided upon 
your provisions, weigh them and find how much 
of a load you've to carry. The probability is that 
it will be a great deal more than you expected, but 
don't be discouraged unless you know you are not 
strong enough to carry it. Of course if it won't 
all go in the pack, or if it weighs a great deal, you 
will have to eliminate certain things, that is, if 
you are going to tramp with all your earthly 
camping possessions on your back; but if you are 
going by canoe or vehicle, the weight won't matter 
much. But even when "hoofing it," it will sur- 



Preparing to Go Camping 35 

prise you to find how much you can carry. When 
I was a boy of sixteen I spent a summer camping 
and trapping through the mountains of northern 
New Hampshire, and my regular load was fifty 
pounds. Some of the natives — fishermen and 
trappers — carried as much as one hundred 
pounds, but as a rule thirty-five pounds is all 
you'll want to tote until you become accustomed 
to it and one can get a surprising amount of dun- 
nage into a thirty-five pound pack. 



CHAPTER II 

HOW AND WHERE TO CAMP 

V^RY often camp life is made miserable 
and an outing is a failure merely be- 
cause the spot selected for a campsite is 
unsuitable. Many people seem to think that one 
can make camp at any old place, but this is a 
grave mistake. To be sure, temporary, one-night 
camps need not be selected with the same care as 
permanent camps, but there are certain things 
essential to camping which should always be 
sought. An old woodsman apparently makes 
camp wherever the humour suits him or nightfall 
finds him, but in reality he uses keen judgment 
and foresight and selects the spot for his camp 
with reference to its location and surroundings. 
But the experienced woodsman sees and realises 
these things instinctively, or else knows through 
long experience where to look for them, and in- 
tuitively seeks the right spot. To the amateur it's 
quite a different matter, and one place may ap- 

36 



How and Where to Camp 37 

pear quite as good as another; and, moreover, he 
seldom can judge "by the lay of the land" where ^ 
to look for the essential requirements of a good 
campsite. As a result it often requires some 
time and not often a little search to find a suit- 
able spot in which to camp, and hence you should 
not wait until too late in the day to make camp, 
but should leave yourself plenty of time to find 
a place fulfilling all, or as many as possible, of 
your requirements. 

Of course in a dry, barren country where there 
is no water, or in an open treeless country, the 
following rules do not apply, but one seldom 
selects such situations for camping and as a rule 
camps for pleasure are made in well-timbered, 
well-watered districts. The two prime essentials 
for a campsite are wood and water. Not neces- 
sarily a large body of water nor heavy forest, but 
good drinking water, such as a brook or spring, 
and with enough timber to furnish shelter and 
fire. Given these, you should select fairly high, 
well-drained land, preferably a knoll or hillock, 
for a hollow or depression is always damp and 
chilly and a heavy rain during the night may flood 
the camp. Avoid rocky or stony ground — granite 
makes uncomfortable beds and it's next to im- 



38 The Book of Camping 

possible to drive sticks or erect a strong camp on 
ledges or where rocks are covered by a thin layer 
of soil. Don't camp in a pine or hemlock grove 
if you can help it. Fire will creep and spread in 
the fallen pine needles or hemlock leaves and a 
forest fire may result, but do select a spot where 
hemlocks, spruce, firs or other evergreens are near 
at hand for these trees are of the greatest value 
to the camper. You may have to camp on a hill- 
side, but if you do, don't fail to dig a trench 
around the upper side of your camp to carry off 
the water in case it rains and thus avoid being 
flooded out. 

Don't pitch your tent or build your camp too 
close to the edge of a pond, lake or stream; they 
may rise during the night and you'll wake up to 
find yourself in several inches of ice-cold water. 
Don't select a spot overgrown with thick brush 
or weeds. It's a tiresome job to clear this away 
and your time can be spent to better advantage. 
If possible, select a location where there is fallen 
timber or dead trees near at hand as this will 
save much weary work chopping and burning 
green wood. If there are white birches in the 
vicinity so much the better; birch bark is a very 
useful article to the camper. If you are travelling 



How and Where to Camp 39 

by canoe choose a spot as handy to your landing 
place as possible. If you are touring and camp- 
ing by automobile try to locate a camp site within 
reach of the road and your car. If you are using 
a tent you can pitch it anywhere, as long as 
there is good drainage, drinking water, firm 
ground for your tent pegs and wood for fuel. If 
you don't wish to be troubled by mosquitos and 
other insect pests select a spot which is open to 
the sun during the day and where the breeze has 
a clear sweep at night, but don't pitch your camp 
to leeward of the fire, unless you wish to be kept 
awake all night by smoke with the chance of 
having the camp burned down if the wind rises. 

THE BEST CAMP TO USE 

As I have already mentioned, there is no best 
camp for all purposes or for all places. The 
particular kind of camp to be used depends very 
largely upon conditions, and what might be the 
best camp in one place or for one purpose might 
be the very worst type under other conditions or 
in another locality. There is every gradation of 
camp, from a mere shelter of boughs or branches 
to the elaborate comfortable log cabin, and there 
are styles and forms of tents without number. 



40 The Book of Camping 

It is scarcely necessary to describe tents. Each 
camper who decides to use a tent must determine 
upon its size and pattern for himself, but per- 
sonally I consider the "A" and ^Vall-tents" the 
best forms. Where there are but one or two per- 
sons the "A'' tent will serve every purpose, but 
if there are several in the party or a more sub- 
stantial camp for a long stay is desired, the 
"wall-tent" is preferable. Before pitching a tent, 
clear up the ground where you intend to place it 
and for some distance around on all sides. With 
an axe, hatchet or machete this is easily done. 
Bend over the bushes and young saplings with 
one hand and chop through the strained fibres 
close to the ground and you will find that even 
good sized trees may readily be cut off with a 
few sharp blows. After the tent is pitched, the 
ground within should be smoothed and softened. 
Pull up all twigs, roots and small stubs, remove 
the dead leaves and trash and with the back of 
the axe — ^used like an adze by swinging it be- 
tween your legs — knock down all the knobs and 
hummocks of earth until the surface is smooth 
and level. Perhaps you think this an unneces- 
sary labour, but if you sleep all night on two or 
three lumps of earth or a small pebble or a sharp 



How and Where to Camp 41 

stick you'll wish you'd spent an hour or so smooth- 
ing the ground. 

If you are using a "wall"- or ''A" tent, try to 
find a spot where there are two trees, ten or more 
feet apart, and stretch a rope between them for 
the ridge pole of your tent or, if preferred, place 
a strong sapling between the trees instead of using 
the rope. If there are projecting branches or 
crotches on the trees the pole may be laid in these, 
but if not — and it's seldom that two trees have 
branches exactly the same height above the ground 
— the pole may be lashed in place by rope or 
withes. The rope ridge is, however, the most 
convenient for it's always on hand and when not 
in use may be wrapped around the tent. Don't 
mind if the rope sags when the tent is thrown over 
it, that will be remedied later. Next make your 
tent-pegs — unless you carry steel pegs with you, 
which is a good plan if you have a canoe or motor 
car, but adds unnecessary weight if you are tramp- 
ing. To make tent-pegs easily and quickly, 
place a young maple or birch sapling — about an 
mch in diameter — across a log and by two sharp 
blows, at an angle, cut off sections at least 18 
inches long. These long pegs will prevent the 
ropes from slipping off and will hold the ground 



42 The Book of Camping 

far better than shorter ones. Throw the tent over 
the ridge, peg down the four corners, and be sure 
to get them square and equidistant from the ridge 
and one another. Peg down the edges of the tent 
and then cut a crotched stick, a trifle longer than 
the height of your tent in the centre. Wedge this 
under the ridge rope in the centre of the tent and 
it will draw all sides of the tent tight and smooth. 
If a few projecting branch stubs are left on this 
upright stick they'll serve a useful purpose to 
hang things on. If the ground is rocky or thin 
you may have trouble in driving pegs. In that 
case drive them at a sharp angle and pile flat 
rocks on top of them, or place good sized logs 
against them on the side nearest the tent. 
They will hold even in a gale when thus se- 
cured. 

But it's far more fun to build your own camp 
than to put up a tent and it takes but little more 
time, while a well-built camp is just as secure 
and comfortable as a tent. 

Probably the best in most places is the kind 
shown as a "lean-to." To build a lean-to is one 
of the very first and most important things you 
should learn, for no one can consider himself a 
woodsman or a camper until he can erect a 



How and Where to Camp 43 

weatherproof, substantial lean-to from the mate- 
rials at his command in the forest. 

Although the lean-to is primarily adapted to 
one night or temporary camps, yet it is an easy 
matter to build a lean-to strong and substantial 
enough to be used as a permanent camp for a 
whole summer; the principle being identical in 
either case. It's such an easy matter to build a 
lean-to that almost any one who can use an axe 
or hatchet should have no difficulty, but just the 
same it will save a lot of time and trouble if you 
practise the art in woods near home before start- 
ing off on your camping trip. This will not only 
save time, but you'll become accustomed to using 
your simple tools and you'll learn which mate- 
rials are best adapted to your purposes and where 
to find them, and you'll acquire many a little 
"wrinkle" and get the "knack" of building your 
camp without unnecessary labour and wasted 
energy. 

After you have found a suitable camping spot 
select a pair of strong trees eight to twelve feet 
apart — ^the size of your camp will of course de- 
pend upon the number of campers — and with 
branches six to eight feet above the ground. If 
you can't find two such trees you need not be 



44 The Book of Camping 

discouraged for poles may be lashed to the trunks 
instead of resting them on limbs and, by using 
a stouter cross-piece, trees twenty feet apart may 
be used. 

But assuming that you have found two such 
trees, proceed to clear the ground between them 
and for the space you intend for the floor of your 
camp, as directed for pitching a tent. Next cut 
three or four poles about twelve feet long and 
at least three inches in diameter at the larger 
ends. Place one of these across the two standing 
trees — resting the ends in crotches of the branches 
where they join the trunks, or lashing them to the 
trunks, at a height of five to eight feet above the 
ground according to the size of the lean-to that 
you wish to build. (Fig. 1.) Then place two 
other poles with their large ends resting on the 
ground and their small ends resting on the pole 
between the trees as shown in Fig. 2. Be sure 
these two poles are parallel and extend the same 
distance from the cross-piece between the trees. 
And here it may be well to state that the cross- 
piece between the trees will be the front of the 
camp and that the fire is to be built before it and 
hence the spot should be chosen and the camp 
built with reference to this. 




4S 



4-6 The Book of Camping 

Between the two slanting poles place a number 
of smaller poles parallel with them. (Fig. 3.) 
Don't make the mistake of trimming off the 
branches from these poles so they are smooth. 
Leave little stubs about two or three inches long 
as these are very useful, or even necessary. 
Across these slanting poles, and resting against 
the projecting stubs, lay a number of light poles 
or branches (Fig. 4) and the frame of the lean-to 
is complete. To form the roof you may either 
thatch it or use bark. If there are plenty of ever- 
greens about, thatching is the best and easiest 
method, especially for a temporary camp, but bark 
— especially birch bark — makes a tighter roof 
and is advisable for a permanent camp. If there 
are two campers one should be gathering thatch 
material while the other erects the framework; if 
there are three in the party the third may be gath- 
ering firewood and preparing the evening meal, 
and if there are more than three all can take hold 
and by doing various things at the same time 
camp will be built as if by magic. 

For the thatch select large flat "fans" or tips, 
of soft, thick hemlock or fir boughs. Commenc- 
ing at the lower end of the slanting room hook 
these fans over the cross-pieces in layers like 



How and Where to Camp 47 

shingles, with each layer overlapping the ones be- 
low it. (Fig. 5.) Continue in this way until the 
roof is completely covered, and if you wish still 
better protection place a second or third layer over 
the first. If it's windy or stormy place additional 
poles over the thatch — running them parallel with 
the slanting roof-poles and lash them in place 
with hemlock roots, withes or twine. If you wish 
still greater security and shelter place upright 
poles extending from the ground to the roof poles, 
place horizontal poles across these and thatch 
them as you did the roof. Very often two lean-tos 
are built near together and facing each other and 
the fire is then built between them. This ar- 
rangement makes a very comfortable camp and 
one half may be used during the day and the 
other for sleeping or both may be used for sleep- 
ing quarters if there are several persons in the 
party. A very comfortable permanent camp may 
be built in this way and enclosing one side of the 
opening between the two lean-tos, and if desired 
it may also be roofed, in which case the fire 
must be built outside. 

In case you cannot find evergreen trees handy, 
or if you wish an even more substantial roof, 
peel bark from birch trees or hemlocks and use 



48 The Book of Camping 

the sheets like shingles — securing them in posi- 
tion by means of poles laid across them and lashed 
in place. But don't sacrifice trees and leave them 
to die for the sake of their bark. It isn't neces- 
sary and by peeling the bark properly the trees 
will continue to live and grow and will soon 
recover from their injuries. The idea is to leave 
a narrow, continuous strip of bark, so that the 
sap may find its way up the tree, which it cannot 
do if the bark is peeled from the entire circum- 
ference of the trees. 

To peel the bark properly make two cuts nearly, 
but not quite, around the tree — one as high as 
you can reach, the other near the ground. Con- 
nect the ends of these cuts by perpendicular in- 
cisions (Fig. 6) and by starting the bark at one 
of these the whole slab will come off, leaving the 
narrow strip on one side of the tree untouched. 
If there are branches, stubs or twigs on the part 
selected they should be cut close and flush with 
the trunk before starting to peel the bark as other- 
wise the piece of bark will be torn and ripped as 
you peel it off. 

After the lean-to is built, smooth the ground 
within it as already directed, and then you may 
busy yourself making the beds. 



How and Where to Camp 49 

Although a lean-to may be thrown together 
in less than an hour, yet such hastily con- 
structed camps are intended only for temporary 
shelters, or for a single night's use. But a lean- 
to may be built with care which will be prac- 
tically waterproof and will withstand the heav- 
iest storms and wettest weather and will last for 
several seasons. If made with a heavy, strongly 
built framework securely lashed together, and 
covered with birch or hemlock bark held in place 
by light poles lashed across the sheets, a lean-to 
may be made tight and snug enough for mid- 
winter use. 

Another method of making a very warm and 
comfortable camp is to build two lean-tos a short 
distance apart and with their open sides facing 
each other. Then, by building the fire between 
the two, the heat will be thrown into both shel- 
ters and there will be no chance for cold air to 
enter. 

But in many places there are no suitable trees 
for the purpose of making a lean-to, or else, one 
can not cut timber at will, and in such localities, 
the camper may resort to some other form of 
shack. Shacks or huts may be made of almost 
any material, such as grass, reeds, branches. 



50 The Book of Camping 

brush, straw or hay. They may be mere shelters 
for one night and roughly built or they may 
be substantial snug houses of "wattled" or 
"thatched" construction. A well-made wattled 
or thatched shack is wind, water and storm proof, 
cool in summer and warm in winter and in many 
parts of the world the natives use such huts for 
permanent residences. They are especially valu- 
able in warm climates, and where there is abun- 
dant material for their construction, they can be 
readily and rapidly built. 

Wattled shacks may be built of small boughs 
or withes of almost any sort, such as willow, 
hazel, birch, etc., for a frame and may be covered 
with any handy material, such as straw, grass, 
hay, cattails, reeds, tules, bullrushes or ever- 
green boughs or a combination of several. 

The first step is to erect a rough framework of 
the desired size (Fig. 7). This may be of 
branches, poles, fence rails or sticks of any kind 
and the various pieces may be lashed together 
with withes, roots, vines, twisted straw or grass, 
twine or thongs, or nails may be used, as pre- 
ferred. As the wattling will strengthen and 
stiffen the whole, the frame may be very light 
and flimsy, although if the hut is to serve as a 




77///ia 



51 



52 The Book of Camping 

permanent camp or for some time, it is wise 
to make the frame carefully and strongly of good 
sized, rigid material. When the frame is com- 
pleted the next thing is to attach poles or sticks 
reaching from the upper edge of the frame to the 
ground as illustrated in Fig. 8, These vertical 
poles should be spaced three or four inches apart 
and openings should be left for such doors and 
windows as you may desire, as shown in the 
cut. Then, with flexible branches, roots, withes, 
wisps of grass or straw, reeds, or whatever ma- 
terial is the handiest, weave under and over the 
vertical poles in a sort of rough basket work as 
shown in Fig, 9. It may seem as if this would 
be a slow and tedious job, but you will find that 
with plenty of material on hand, the work will 
proceed very rapidly and you will be surprised 
to find how soon a good sized frame may be 
covered. 

Where the wattling reaches the edges of door 
and window openings, the material should be 
bent around the poles and tucked back under 
and over one or two poles as in Fig. 9 A. 

When the walls are covered, wattle the roof in 
the same manner and finish it by laying slabs of 
bark, bunches of grass or rushes, or evergreen 



How and Where to Camp 53 

boughs over it. Place the lowest layer first and 
let each succeeding layer overlap those ,below 
like shingles (Fig. 10), If a sufficient ^^pitch" 
or slant has been given to the roof frame this 
covering will be perfectly waterproof, even in the 
heaviest rains. 

No doubt your first attempts at wattling will 
be rather crude and there will be numerous open- 
ings between the poles and wattling material, 
but these may be rendered water and wind tight 
by daubing the whole surface with mud or clay, 
or the crevices may be chinked with moss, sod, 
grass or other material. 

Doors may be constructed of canvas or may be 
made of a frame covered with wattling and the 
windows may be closed with shutters made in 
the same manner. If there are any tough, flex- 
ible withes, roots or vines available, the doors 
and shutters may be hung with such material to 
serve as hinges. Even twisted wisps of grass 
or straw or braided reeds will answer this pur- 
pose. Another method of building shacks is by 
"thatching," which is a very easy method when 
grass, reeds, straw or rushes are abundant and 
withes and bushes are scarce. Even evergreen 
boughs may be used for thatching, as described 



54 The Book of Camping 

in the construction of a lean-to (Fig, 5), but straw, 
grass or reeds are the best materials. For a 
thatched hut construct the framework as de- 
scribed for a wattled hut, but with the light poles 
lashed horizontally instead of vertically (Fig. 
11). Then, commencing at the bottom, lash 
bunches of the thatching material to these poles, 
finishing one complete row before placing the 
next, and being careful that each succeeding row 
of thatch overlaps the one below and that each 
bundle of thatch ^'breaks the joints" of those 
underneath, as shown in Fig. 11 B. 

The roof is thatched in the same way and it 
should be borne in mind that the more closely the 
bunches of thatch are tied and the more rows 
there are the tighter will be the roof. Doors and 
windows may be made of thatched frames or of 
wattling and a wattled hut may often be provided 
with a thatched roof to advantage. 

Of all permanent camps, the log house is the 
most substantial, but to build a log cabin one 
must be an expert axeman and many large trees 
must be sacrificed and as our forests are being 
far too rapidly destroyed as it is the large trees 
should never be cut for the purpose of building 
a camp unless absolutely necessary. 



How and Where to Camp ^^ 

Sometimes, where lumbering has been carried 
on, a very good substitute for a log cabin may be 
constructed from the bark-covered slabs cut 
from the logs and cast aside as waste by the 
lumbermen. In some parts of the country sod- 
houses are in use and where there is an abundant 
tough sod and one desires a permanent camp a 
sod house may be built to advantage. The 
process is so simple as scarcely to require de- 
scription, for it is as easy as building a snow 
house. The sods are cut into squares and merely 
piled one on another to form the walls and the 
whole is roofed with poles which are also cov- 
ered with sods, or if preferred, the roof may be 
thatched. 

Still another type of camp which has some ad- 
vantages is the Indian tepee, and while tepees 
may perhaps be classed as tents rather than as 
shacks, yet a tepee may be built of poles and cov- 
ered with sheets of bark, wattling or thatching. 
The greatest advantage of the tepee is the ease 
with which it may be set up, taken down and 
carried from place to place. Moreover it is far 
better ventilated, more comfortable and more 
thoroughly weatherproof than most forms of 
tents. Its disadvantages are that long poles 



56 The Book of Camping 

must be carried if the tepee is to be used in a 
district where poles cannot be cut as desired while 
its circular floor plan does not accommodate it- 
self to economy of space as readily as the square 
or rectangular shape of other tents. But in the 
minds of many its advantages more than out- 
weigh its disadvantages and for all around use 
there are few tents more convenient and portable 
than the tepee. It is a difficult matter to pur- 
chase ready made tepees which are really good 
and many are mere playthings, suitable only for 
lawns or gardens, and it is far more satisfactory 
to make one's own tepees, which is a very simple 
matter. 

The size of the tepee to be used will depend 
upon the number of persons Who are to occupy 
it as well as upon the distance it is to be carried 
and the means of transportation. A tepee 14 
feet in height and with a floor 14 feet in di- 
ameter is large enough for three or four occu- 
pants and is about as large as can readily be 
carried afoot or in a small canoe. 

To make a tepee of these dimensions will re- 
quire fifty yards of cloth and the material used 
will depend upon your own taste and pocket book. 
Cotton drill, light canvas, waterproof silk, khaki 




^.■<,.I4£. 



57 



58 The Book of Camping 

or any other tent fabric may be used. The 
breadths of cloth should first be sewed together 
to form a rectangular sheet 10 yards long by 5 
yards in width and with each edge lapped and 
double stitched as shown in Fig. 12 A, Stretch 
this piece of cloth upon a smooth, level surface, 
mark the exact centre of one of the long edges 
and drive a nail at the spot (Fig. 12x) secure a 
piece of strong twine or cord and tie a small 
loop in each end, so that from centre to centre 
of the loops is 15 feet. Place one loop over the 
nail and in the other loop insert a piece of char- 
coal, a soft pencil or a coloured crayon, and while 
holding the cord tight, draw a half circle on the 
cloth as at C-D Fig, 12, At the places marked 
E-E cut out triangular spaces each 10 inches deep 
and 10 inches wide and mark off a space of 7 feet 
8 inches from D-G and from C-F and divide 
each of these spaces into eight equal parts of 
11^ inches. On each of these marks make two 
small circles or dots 2 inches apart and with 
the outer ones 2 inches from the edge of the 
cloth. Then mark off 25 spaces 2 feet apart 
along the curved line from C-D. Then, from 
the corners of the cloth outside of the semi-cir- 
cular line, cut a couple of pieces of the form 



How and Where to Camp 59 

shown in Fig. 12 B, each of which should be 7 
feet on the long edge, 6J^ feet on the short edge, 
3^2 feet across one end and 1^ feet across the 
other end. Sew small triangular pieces in one 
comer of each to form little pockets (K) and 
attach pieces of strong light rope (L). The 
cloth may now be cut out around the curved line 
from C-D and the edges from D-G and from 
F-C should be hemmed. Around the curve from 
C-D hem in a light rope, having loops projecting 
at each of the marks (I). Each of these loops 
should be about lyi inches in diameter and 
should be made by splicing or seizing the rope 
as illustrated at Fig. 13, The edges of the two 
pieces B B should be neatly hemmed and at 
each of the marks H, holes should be made 
through the cloth and the rough edges finished 
by ^'buttonhole" stitching. Finally, attach a 
couple of pieces of rope at the point X, sew the 
pieces B B in position as shown, and the tepee is 
ready for use. 

In order to set up the tepee twelve straight poles 
are required, ten of which should be about 16 
to 18 feet in length, while the other two should be 
at least 20 feet long. You will also need about 
25 feet of light rope, eight pins of hard wood 



6o The Book of Camping 

about 8 inches long and J4 inch in diameter 
and 25 tent pegs 1 foot long and 1 inch in 
diameter. To erect the tepee, tie three of the 16 
foot poles together at one end, using a few turns 
of the 25 foot rope for the purpose, mark a 14 
foot circle on the ground and place the poles in 
the form of a tripod with their bases resting on 
the circle (Fig, 14), Then arrange six more of 
the poles about the circle, with their upper ends 
resting against the first three poles, and fasten all 
securely by winding a couple of turns of the rope 
about them (Fig. 14 A), Drive a stout stake 
in the centre of the circle, draw the hanging end 
of the rope tight and fasten it to the stake thus 
anchoring the pole frame as shown at h {Fig, 
14 A), 

Now fasten the rope attached to the cloth at 
X {Fig, 12), to the end of the last 16 foot pole 
and lift the cloth into place as shown at Fig. 14 B, 
Letting the pole rest against the frame, pull the 
cloth around the poles and peg the bottom into 
place by pegs driven through the loops at an 
angle. The two front edges of the cloth should 
then be lapped and pinned together by means of 
the lacing pins through the holes I I as in Fig, 
15, 



How and Where to Camp 6l 

Insert the ends of the 20 foot poles in the 
pockets in the corners of flaps B B and swing 
the flaps into position, quartering the wind, as 
indicated at Fig, 14 C. 

When no fire is burning in the tepee, or in a 
heavy wind or rain, the flaps should be folded 
over and held in position by the ropes L L, Fig. 
12, thus completely closing the opening. 

The door of the tepee may be closed by lacing 
or pinning the edges together, but a better plan 
is to make a cloth door on a light frame of withes 
as shown at Fig. 15 A and which may be hung 
to a lacing pin as in Fig. 15 B. If a piece of 
canvas the desired shape and size is made and is 
provided with eyelets or holes around the edges 
it may be stretched upon a frame as required and 
thus the nuisance of carrying the awkward door 
may be avoided. 

As a rule a tepee should be set up facing the 
east, as the prevailing winds are usually westerly 
and thus the fire will draw better and, moreover, 
the door and interior will receive the early morn- 
ing light and more sunshine. When the smoke 
flaps are closed in bad weather, or when the wind 
is easterly and there is trouble in making the fire 
draw well, the lower edge of the tepee may be 



62 The Book of Camping 

lifted slightly and a good draught will be se- 
cured. In a country where pegs and lacing pins 
may be cut from standing timber and poles may 
be secured as required it is only necessary to 
carry the rope and cloth, which may be rolled 
into a compact bundle and tied with the 25 foot 
anchor rope. Properly made and set up, with 
a bright fire burning within, a tepee is cosy and 
warm enough for midwinter use, while in sum- 
mer it may be kept cool and a free circulation 
of air insured by lifting the lower edge of the 
cloth for a foot or so above the ground, leav- 
ing it pegged down in three or four spots. 

In districts where campers travel by canoe or 
boat on rivers or lakes very comfortable tents and 
outfits may be carried and many tents are now 
made which are specially designed for canoe use. 

Another delightful method of travelling about 
and camping out is by automobile. A regular 
tent and outfit may be carried by motor car or, 
if preferred, a camp trailer may be hitched be- 
hind the car and in which the complete camp 
with cots, cooking utensils, mosquito nets and 
all other luxuries are compactly stowed. But 
while one may camp very comfortably by such 
up-to-date outfits, yet much of the real enjoyment 



How and Where to Camp 63 

of "roughing it" is lost and, moreover, the most 
attractive and best places to camp are usually 
out of reach of motor cars or boats. Most im- 
portant of all, however, is the fact that when 
camping by such means one learns little of wood- 
craft or of self-reliance and dependence on 
nature and in this, after all, lies the greatest 
value of camping out. 



CHAPTER III 

CAMP HOUSEKEEPING 

THE first thing to be done after camp is 
pitched, whether you use a tent, a tepee, 
a hut, a shack, or a lean-to, is to make 
the beds. For temporary use this is a very sim- 
ple and easy matter, and you will be surprised 
to find what a springy, soft and comfortable bed 
may be made with no tools save an axe, machete 
or stout knife, and no materials except a quantity 
of fir or hemlock boughs. 

But it is hopeless to try to make a comfortable 
bed imless the floor of your camp is smooth, 
level, soft and free from all stubs, stones and 
hummocks. For this reason you should take 
care to follow the directions for smoothing the 
floor (see Chapter II). 

This accomplished, cut down a young hem- 
lock, balsam fir, or other evergreen, — ^the balsam 
is the best, — or lop a number of good sized 
branches from trees, and pull off the soft "fans" 

64 



Camp Housekeeping 65 

or flattened tips to the branches. I say "pull/* 
for those which are too large or tough to be 
pulled off by hand are too large and coarse for 
bed making. 

You may have to walk about quite a little in 
order to secure an ample supply of fans, but there 
is no difficulty in carrying them if they are placed 
criss-cross on the handle of your axe or are hung 
on a light pole. 

Having gathered your supply of material, place 
a thick layer of the fans on the floor of your camp 
where the bed is to be, and be careful to place the 
butt ends towards the foot of the bed (which 
should be towards the fire) and place the branches 
with their convex sides uppermost. Now, com- 
mencing at the foot of the bed, thrust the butt ends 
of more fans down through the first layer at a 
slight angle and letting each succeeding row over- 
lap the ones already placed and this working 
towards the head of the bed or '^thatching," just 
as if you were covering the roof. In this way you 
will secure a smooth surface of soft fragrant fans 
with the tips all turned towards the foot of the bed 
(Fig. 1) and by adding one or more additional 
layers you can make the bed as thick and soft as 
you may desire and over this the blankets may be 



66 The Book of Camping 

spread as over a mattress. Even if you have no 
blankets or coverings of any sort you will find 
this rough and ready bed as delightfully restful 
as any you ever slept in. The next step is to build 
a fire, but of course, if there are several people in 
the camp, work should be arranged so that while 
some are making the camp others are building 
the fire and cooking and others are gathering 
material for the beds, for one of the first rules to 
be observed when camping is to have each member 
of the party assigned to a definite duty. Then 
there will be no bother nor vexatious delays and 
everything will go along orderly and smoothly 
with no loss of time or temper. It may seem 
like a very simple matter to build a fire, and you 
may think that a description of how to do it is 
superfluous. In fine weather, with plenty of dry 
material on hand, it is easy to make a fire, but it's 
one thing to make a fire and another to make one 
properly, while not a little skill and experience 
are required to kindle a blaze when everything is 
soaking wet, soggy with moisture and the wind is 
blowing a gale, and rain is driving down in tor- 
rents. 

Moreover, matches are valuble when camping 



Camp Housekeeping 67 

out, and every camper should know how to build 
a fire in any weather without wasting a single 
match. The size of the fire you build must de- 
pend very largely upon the weather, the type of 
camp you use and the purposes for which you are 
to use it. Indians, as a rule, build a very small 
fire and tend it constantly, while white woodsmen 
usually make a roaring fire and trust to the coals 
keeping up sufficient heat to warm the camp 
over night and to start a new fire in the morning, 
and little attention is required save to throw on a 
log now and then. In the one case, one gets little 
sleep and must huddle over and nurse the tiny 
blaze, while in the other a vast amount of fuel is 
wasted, and one roasts while the fire is blazing 
and shivers after it dies down. It is far better to 
build a medium-sized fire and after a short time 
you will learn to wake up and replenish the fire at 
regular intervals. 

Many campers use one fire both for heating the 
camp and for cooking, and if you use a tepee, with 
a fire inside, this is all very well, but in case your 
fire is in the open, as is necessary with a lean-to 
or shack, it is a better plan to build two fires, one 
for heating purposes and the other for cooking. 



68 The Book of Camping 

In any event, the method of starting the fire is 
the same and with one fire going you can easily 
kindle as many more as you like. 

The first important item in building a fire is to 
have an abundance of the proper materials ready 
to your hand. When your fuel is ready, gather a 
number of light, dry chips and twigs and the 
dry, resinous branches of evergreens, such as the 
dead stubs which may always be found sticking 
out from evergreen trees, and, if there are white 
birches in the neighbourhood, secure a quantity of 
the bark. Birch bark is a very useful thing, for 
it will burn readily, even when damp or green, 
and every camper should carry a roll of bark with 
him for use in emergencies. 

Make a little criss-cross pile of the driest kin- 
dlings and shreds of bark, and right here let me 
caution you against splitting up or breaking the 
dry sticks until you are ready to use them. A 
dead stick may be soaking wet externally and yet 
dry and inflammable inside, and if it is split open 
at the last minute it will catch fire readily, 
whereas, five minutes' exposure to fog, dew, rain 
or damp air may make it so soggy it is worthless 
as kindling. 

There is quite a little knack in arranging the 



Camp Housekeeping 69 

kindlings so as to blaze up quickly and surely at 
the first attempt. The best way is to build a lit- 
tle pile, like a miniature log cabin, and over this 
place dry sticks in conical form like a little tepee. 
Then light a bit of birch bark, or a resinous twig, 
thrust it under the kindlings and nurse the tiny 
blaze until it burns briskly. Do not smother it 
with too much fuel, and don't wait until the kin- 
dlings have burned away to coals before adding 
more fuel ; but keep adding twigs, bark, and chips, 
little by little, and increasing the size of the sticks 
as the blaze gains in size, until a good lively fire 
is burning. 

As soon as you have the fire well under way, 
place a good sized green, hardwood log on each 
side of the fire and as far apart as is convenient 
for resting pots, pans or other cooking utensils 
across the logs. These side logs should be of 
hickory, maple, oak or some similar slow burning 
wood, for they are not intended to serve as fuel, 
but as resting places for your cooking utensils and 
as backlogs to confine the fire within certain 
limits. 

If the fire is to be used only for cooking, the 
logs may be two or three feet in length and about 
six inches in diameter, while for a large heating 



70 The Book of Camping 

fire, they should be at least eight feet long and 
fully eight inches in diameter. 

If one fire is to be used for both cooking and 
heating, the logs should be placed close together 
at one end and wider apart at the other, to form a 
"F/' and the cooking utensils may then be placed 
across the narrow space over a bed of coals raked 
from the main fire, between the ends of the logs 
farther apart. 

For the heating fire, place two or three logs out- 
side of the first two, and then, as the latter become 
charred and burned away, the others may be 
rolled forward to take their places. The heating 
fire for a lean-to should be fed with sticks several 
inches in diameter and three or four feet in length, 
for smaller sticks throw little heat, although they 
burn brightly. Such a fire, placed six or eight 
feet distant from the front of a lean-to, will throw 
enough heat inside the camp to keep it com- 
fortably warm, even on cold winter nights. 

As long as the fire is fed and kept blazing, 
there will be no trouble about keeping warm, and 
when ready to turn in for the night, two or three 
heavy hardwood logs, thrown on the coals, will 
smoulder and burn all night. Even if they die 
down and do not blaze, they will still give out con- 



Camp Housekeeping 71 

siderable heat. Whenever one of the campers 
wakes up he should stir the fire, turn the logs over 
and perhaps throw on a new log, and in this way 
a uniform moderate fire may be kept burning all 
through the night with little trouble. 

In order to build a fire intelligently, or to keep 
the fire going to the best advantage with the least 
waste of fuel, every camper should be familiar 
with the properties of wood in his vicinity. It is 
a common mistake for amateurs to look upon all 
kinds of timber as equally suitable for fuel, but, 
as a matter of fact, every wood has peculiarities 
of its own, and the wood which will give the best 
results for one purpose may be very unsuitable 
for another. By knowing the woods a great deal 
of trouble, annoyance and uncertainty may be 
avoided, and you should strive to familiarise your- 
self with the woods within reach of your camp and 
select them with regard to the purposes for which 
they are to be employed. 

As examples of this, beech, oak, maple, chest- 
nut and hickory are all good firewoods, while elm, 
hemlock, spruce and fir are poor ; but each of these 
has properties of which the skilled camper may 
take advantage. Thus, chestnut does not make a 
lasting fire, but gives out a good heat and pro- 



72 The Book of Camping 

duces fine coals for cooking purposes; hickory 
does not blaze freely, but makes splendid beds of 
coals and lasts a long time, but is liable to die out 
unless mixed with lighter woods; beech and 
maple are both good heating woods and burn well, 
while birch gives a good heat, blazes freely, makes 
good coals and is the best wood for all around use, 
as it will burn when green or wet; but it has the 
disadvantage of burning too rapidly for a lasting 
night fire and should be mixed with hickory or 
other heavy, slow-burning woods. Elm burns 
poorly and it smoulders and smokes; pine blazes 
freely, but it gives little heat and it smokes, while 
hemlock, spruce and fir blaze well, but snap and 
crackle, and throw dangerous showers of sparks. 

After a long rain, or in a heavy shaded woods, 
it is often very difficult even for an expert woods- 
man to light a fire, and if you wish to avoid long 
delays and loss of patience and temper, you should 
always be provided with a few dry resinous twigs 
and strips of birch bark, or similar kindlings, 
kept in a waterproof box or package. An Indian, 
or a veteran woodsman, can almost always find 
dry material, but it is far quicker and, easier to 
carry a supply at all times. 

If you have no dry fuel on hand, and the woods 



Camp Housekeeping 73 

are sopping, you should know where to search for 
dry materials with which to start a fire. Dead 
trees, especially balsam fir, hemlock, pine, cedar, 
Cottonwood, etc., usually contain dry wood in the 
centre, and oftentimes the under side of a dead 
and fallen tree or a log or a branch will be found 
dry and inflammable if it has been kept off the 
ground by stones or other logs. In the shelter of 
large fallen trees, and under overhanging ledges 
and in small cavities among rocks, one may often 
find dry leaves, twigs and similar material, while 
squirrels' nests, either in hollow trees or among 
the branches, often provide a good supply of 
shredded cedar bark, twigs, dried leaves and nut 
shells. 

Although there is little excuse for finding one- 
self in the woods without an ample supply of 
matches, yet accidents will happen and matches 
may become wet or damp and useless. To guard 
against such misfortunes, a flint and steel lighter, 
or a patent cigar lighter, should always be in- 
cluded in every camping outfit. But even these 
may be lost or useless, and any one who spends 
much time in the woods, or goes far from civi- 
lisation on a camping trip, should know how to 
make fire without matches. 



74 The Book of Camping 

If provided with a flint and steel, this is com- 
paratively easy, and in most parts of the world 
one may find a quantity of pebbles which, if 
struck with the back of a knife or an axe, will 
produce sparks capable of igniting tinder. 

If you use a regular flint and steel, such as are 
sold for lighting cigars, you will find little diffi- 
culty in striking a spark, for the prepared cotton 
tinder ignites readily, after it has once been 
charred ; but if you resort to a makeshift of pebble 
and knife you will find it absolutely impossible to 
obtain fire unless you have the right kind of punk 
or tinder to catch the sparks. 

Dry cedar bark, dry and rotten pine and spruce 
twigs, dried moss and lichens, resinous pine or 
balsam, dry sawdust and many other common 
things may be used at a pinch, but the best of all 
materials to be found in the woods are dried 
"puff balls" or other fungus growths. Far better 
than any natural substance, however, is a bit of 
charred cotton rope or twisted cotton rag. 

To obtain a fire with flint and steel requires a 
little knack, but it is an art easily mastered. 
Hold the punk or tinder against the under side of 
the flint or pebble and strike the steel sharply 
down across the edge of the stone (Fig. 2). A 




■f^'ii 




r>).3 =p>y'f 




^44- 



75 



76 The Book of Camping 

shower of bright sparks will fly from the pebble 
and, after two or three attempts, one or more of the 
sparks will lodge on the tinder, which will com- 
mence to smoulder and glow. As soon as this 
occurs, blow upon it until a good-sized red spot 
appears, and then, by placing bits of fine dry 
shavings, sawdust and cedar bark, or similar in- 
flammable materials, upon the glowing punk, and 
blowing or fanning it, a blaze will soon spring up. 
It must be admitted, however, that it is much more 
difficult to kindle a fire in this way than it sounds ; 
but with a little patience and practice, you will be 
able to accomplish the feat every time, and the 
knack, once acquired, is never forgotten, and, as 
it is a most useful and valuable accomplishment, 
much time may profitably be spent in learning the 
trick. 

Even without matches or flint or steel, a fire 
may be kindled by means of bow and drill, which 
is an adaptation of the more primitive method of 
rubbing two sticks together. 

It must not be supposed that his is a simple 
matter for the beginner, however, for a good deal 
of practice and patience are required; but the real 
success or failure in making fire by this simple 
method depends upon having exactly the right sort 



Camp Housekeeping 77 

of materials. As these cannot always be secured 
readily, it is a good plan for the camper to carry 
a bow and drill outfit with him and to practise its 
use, especially if going far from civilisation, 
where there is danger of losing or exhausting one's 
supply of matches. 

The appliances required for making a fire by 
bow and drill are as follows : The Bow (Fig. 3), 
This is a curved stiff stick about 25 inches long 
and from J^ to ^ of an inch in diameter, and 
with a leather string (an old shoe lace will an- 
swer) . The string should not be tight, like a real 
bowstring, but should have enough slack so that 
a turn may be taken around the drill. 

The Drill (Fig. 4) is a six- or eight-sided stick, 
from 12 to 18 inches long and ^ inch in 
diameter, pointed at one end and smoothly 
rounded off at the other. 

The Fire Block (Fig. 5). This is a flat 
piece of very dry wood about }i of an inch thick 
and of almost any size, with notches cut on one 
edge. 

The Drill Socket (Fig. 6-7). This may be a 
knot of wood, a piece of bark or a pebble with a 
small hole or recess in one side. 

The Tinder. Shredded dry cedar bark, dried 



78 The Book of Camping 

fungus or moss or any good tinder, as described 
for use with flint and steel. 

Fully as important as the tools are the materials 
from which they are made. Balsam fir, hemlock, 
cedar, hickory or any strong light wood will serve 
for the bow. The drill must be of old thoroughly 
dry but not rotten or punky wood, and the best 
woods for the purpose are fir, cottonwood, bass- 
wood, cedar, larch, pine or sagebrush. But of all 
materials for a drill, cottonwood roots are the 
best. The fire block should be made from dry fir, 
pine, hemlock, or some similar soft, free-burning 
wood. 

To secure fire with the bow and drill place a 
piece of dry pine punk on the ground, place the 
fire block on this and hold it in position with one 
foot. With the string of the bow, take a turn 
around the drill (Fig. 5), and place the pointed 
end of the drill in a notch in the fire block. Hold 
the drill socket in the left hand and rest it firmly 
on the upper, rounded end of the drill, thus hold- 
ing the latter upright. Grasp the bow in the right 
hand and with steady, long strokes, draw the bow 
back and forth, thus revolving the drill in its 
socket. After a few moments a brownish wood 
powder will accumulate on the punk below the 



Camp Housekeeping 79 

fire block, while the notch in the block will in- 
crease in size and a wisp of smoke will rise from 
it. As soon as this occurs, press more firmly on 
the drill and work the bow more rapidly. Pres- 
ently the powdery wood dust will smoke and be- 
come charred, when the bow should at once be 
cast aside and the heap of smouldering dust 
should be fanned or blown gently until it smokes 
freely. Then lift off the fire block and place bits 
of finely-shredded bark or other tinder in the pile 
of dust, place another piece of dry pine punk over 
the powder and tinder, and grasping both pieces 
of wood, with the powder between them, wave the 
whole in the air or blow upon it until it flames. 

Of course, if you are tramping or travelling 
about and making camp only at night or for short 
stops, you will not require any camp furnishings 
save the beds of fir boughs. And here let me sug- 
gest that if you are travelling by canoe or boat, by 
automobile or by any conveyance, you will find a 
good hammock a most satisfactory sleeping ar- 
rangement. Not a fancy lawn or porch ham- 
mock or a heavy canvas affair, but a light South 
American hammock of fibre or cotton. 

Don't have the hammock too small, — it should 
be at least ten feet long and five or six feet wide 



8o The Book of Camping 

when spread open, — and don't hang it too loosely, 
so that you will double up like a half-open knife 
when resting in it. Hang it as nearly horizon- 
tally as possible, and, to sleep well and comfort- 
ably in it, lie diagonally across it. 

But to return to camp furniture. If in a camp 
for some time, or in a permanent camp, simple 
furnishings will prove a great convenience and, 
moreover, the construction of tables, beds, chairs 
and other objects will prove a pleasurable and 
interesting way of spending your spare time. 

An improvement over the ordinary bed of bal- 
sam or hemlock fans may be made by arranging 
four logs, — two about eight feet long and the other 
two about four feet long, — in the form of a 
rectangle and secured in position by means of 
stakes as in Fig, P. 

The space thus enclosed may be filled with the 
fir fans, as already described; but with the logs 
confining the fans, fairly large boughs may be 
used for the first layer and more layers of fans 
may be thatched in, thus forming a much softer 
and thicker bed. 

A still better bed is the Willow Bed, such as is 
used by many of the Western Indians. For mak- 
ing this, you should secure about 60 or 70 straight 





;ft'sJO 





1 Ul ^ 






iTlTh^ 


' : ■ ' ' ' ■ 




. 


c . ' ■ 







^)xr^ 



Si 



82 The Book of Camping 

sticks about the diameter of a lead pencil and 30 
inches in length, and in addition to these you 
should have three or four stouter rods, about half 
an inch in diameter. Preferably all of these 
should be of willow, but any other strong elastic 
wood will answer. Having secured the rods, cut 
notches or grooves about half an inch from each 
end of every stick. In addition to the rods you 
will require a quantity of strong cord or light rope 
about J^ inch in diameter; a ball or spool of 
strong linen thread or fine twine, and a piece of 
shoemaker's wax. From the cord, cut four pieces 
each twenty feet in length, and in the centre of 
each piece tie a loop, as in Fig, 10 A. 

Select a couple of trees about 8 feet apart, and 
in each of these drive four nails or pegs, nine and 
one-half inches apart, as in Fig. 10 B. 

Over the pegs or nails in one tree, slip the loops 
in the cords and twist the free ends tightly 
together, being sure to twist against the lay or 
twist of the cord, so that the tendency of the cord 
will be to stay twisted, and having done this, tie 
the ends of each cord around the proper nail in 
the second tree, as in Fig. 10 C. 

Next open the twisted strands of the cords and 
slip one of the stout sticks through the openings 



Camp Housekeeping 83 

and push it up close against the loop knot, as in 
Fig. 10 D. 

Then insert one of the smaller rods in the same 
way, leaving an inch of cord between it and the 
first rod, and. being careful to place the butt or 
larger end of one rod next to the smaller end of 
the one before it {Fig. 10 E). 

Proceed in this way with the rods and at each 
spot where a rod passes through a twisted cord 
lash cord and rod together firmly with the waxed 
thread, as in Fig. 10 F. Continue in this manner 
for a distance of six feet, and then insert another 
stout rod and make loops in the two outer cords, 
as shown in Fig. 10 G. 

From this point, decrease the length of the rods 
as you proceed, thus narrowing down the bed for 
a length of 18 inches, as in Fig. 10 H, and use a 
stout rod for the last. 

The bed is now completed by tying and lashing 
loops in the ends of the two outer cords, close to 
the last rod, and the whole may then be removed 
from the pegs or nails. The bed may be set up 
for use by placing it on a frame of logs and stak- 
ing out the corners, as in Fig. 10 1, or, if desired, 
it may be covered with canvas, blankets or balsam 
fans. If the latter are used, the butts should be 



84 The Book of Camping 

inserted through the spaces between the rods, and 
each layer should overlap the one preceding, 
exactly as in making an ordinary fir-fan bed. If 
the bed is made with large cord and rather large 
rods at the ends, it may be slung like a hammock. 
Such a bed will be found very springy and com- 
fortable, and as it can be rolled up into a compact 
bundle and is very light, it may easily be trans- 
ported from camp to camp. 

In case no suitable trees can be found, a frame 
for making the bed may be built by driving a 
couple of stakes in the earth, or the cords may be 
attached to a bough, pole or beam overhead, and 
their lower ends kept tight by being attached to 
another pole or log suspended a few inches from 
the earth. 

Tables may also be made very easily by driving 
forked sticks into the earth and then lashing a 
rectangular frame to them, and which should then 
be covered by birch bark as in Fig. 11 A, In 
place of the bark, rods or withes may be lashed 
close together, or cords may be stretched across 
the top and wattled with willow, withes, or other 
materials. Chairs or benches may be constructed 
in the same manner, with legs lashed to the corners 



Camp Housekeeping 85 

and braces fastened from leg to leg, as in Fig. 
11 B, or if they are to remain in one place, as is 
the case of benches about a table or in camp, the 
chairs may be made by wattling a frame fastened 
between upright stakes. 

Another method of making a rough and ready 
seat or bench is to hew off one side of a log until 
smooth and flat, bore four holes in the rounded 
side, and in these drive stout sticks to serve as 
legs {Fig. 12). 

Of course, if you have hammers, saws, nails 
and other tools with you, it is a very simple matter 
to construct all sorts of rustic furniture, but those 
mentioned may all be made with material found 
in the woods, and with no tools other than a 
knife, an axe and a ball of twine. The last is 
not really essential, for roots, strips of bark, vines 
or twisted withes will serve as well as cord for 
lashings. 

If you require hooks, on which to hang cloth- 
ing, cooking utensils or any other articles, it is 
only necessary to cut down a young well-branched 
sapling and trim off the branches a few inches 
from the trunk. This may be suspended from the 
tent rope or shack rafters, or driven into the earth, 



86 The Book of Camping 

and will make a very useful rack on which any 
articles may be hung out of the way and safe from 
dampness or ants. 

A very important part of camping out is camp 
housekeeping, and the camper should strive to 
keep his woodland home as clean, neat and tidy 
as the most particular housewife. Far too many 
campers pay little or no heed to such matters, and 
many camps are slovenly, littered and disgrace- 
fully dirty. Nothing looks worse, and nothing 
disgusts the true woodsman and nature lover more, 
than to find a camp site littered with odds and 
ends of tin cans, papers, empty bottles and other 
rubbish, and there is no earthly excuse for such a 
state of affairs. Within a short distance of the 
camp, a good-sized hole should be dug, as soon as 
camp is made, and into this all refuse should be 
thrown. Before leaving the spot, the hole should 
be filled with earth, and if you are staying in the 
camp for several days or longer, a layer of earth 
should be scattered over the refuse each day, in 
order to prevent flies and insects from being 
attracted and also to avoid any unpleasant odours. 

Never throw refuse of any sort into ponds, lakes 
or streams. It is not only unsightly, but con- 
taminates the water and may cause illness or 



Camp Housekeeping 87 

even death to others who drink the water, thinking 
it unpolluted. 

Keep everything orderly and have a place for 
every article, and make it a point to keep every- 
thing in its place. A skilled woodsman should be 
able to place his hand unerringly on any desired 
article in the darkest night, and if you acquire 
the habit of mislaying or leaving things here, 
there and everywhere, you'll either lose something 
or will waste valuable time, and your temper, try- 
ing to find articles in a hurry. Cleanliness, too, 
is very important in camp. Because there's 
plenty of clean air and pure water, and unlimited 
space, is no excuse for keeping a dirty camp, and 
it's far easier to clean everything up at regular 
times than to let things go until sheer necessity 
compels you to do a week's cleaning at one time. 

Amateur campers are too prone to lay aside 
dishes and cooking utensils unwashed and put off 
cleaning them until required for the next meal. 
Washing dishes is an unpleasant job at best, and 
in camp there is always a tendency to avoid this 
work, but, like a great many other unpleasant 
tasks, it's easier to get it over with at once than to 
put it off and have it constantly on your mind as a 
bugbear. 



88 The Book of Camping 

With a fire going, there is no reason for not 
having a supply of hot water for washing dishes 
and clothes, and if the pot is placed on the coals 
when the meal is served, the water will be hot and 
ready to use by the time the meal is over. But 
even without hot water, it is easy to keep dishes 
clean and metal cooking utensils bright and shin- 
ing. By scrubbing them in a brook or lake, 
and using a handful of moss and sand, or a bit of 
sod, for a dish rag, the dishes and pots and pans 
may be kept as free from dirt and grease as by 
means of soap and patent cleansers. 

It is particularly necessary to keep cooking 
utensils perfectly clean, for cooking over wood 
smokes and soots the pots or pans, and if this is 
not removed at once it becomes baked and burned 
on until it is next to impossible to clean off the 
nasty blackness. Then, when the utensils are 
stowed in the pack or duffle-bag, the soot is trans- 
ferred to the canvas and will be smudged 
onto clothing and everything else which touches 
it. 

If several are camping together, it is an easy 
matter to divide the various duties of camp house- 
keeping, so that each member of the party takes 
turns at the chores. As a rule, however, one mem- 



Camp Housekeeping 89 

ber of the party usually excels at cooking, and you 
will fare better if the position of cook is held con- 
stantly by the one most skilled in culinary arts. 
But, in return, the cook should be exempted from 
all other duties, save in the case of emergency, and 
he should not be expected to wash dishes, cut fire- 
wood, build camp, lug water or do anything save 
to prepare the meals and enjoy himself between 
times. 

If every member of a camping party has his 
special duties each day, and takes turns with the 
others, there will be no cause for complaint, each 
will be doing his share, and no one will feel that 
he is a drudge of the others, which is one of the 
commonest causes of dissension in camping par- 
ties. 

Finally, and very important, is the matter of 
cooking in camp. Many a person who can cook 
at home in a well-appointed kitchen and with a 
coal fire in a range, will fail utterly when in the 
woods with only a saucepan and an open wood 
fire at his disposal. Never start on a camping 
trip without some member who is a good hand at 
simple out of doors cooking, and if there is no 
such member of the party, be sure to take a few 
lessons from mother, sister or hired cook, and do a 



90 The Book of Camping 

little practising at home before you start for the 
woods. 

Don't try to prepare elaborate meals or be too 
anxious to exhibit your skill in camp. The sim- 
pler the meals, the better, and a few well-made 
flapjacks, a bit of broiled bacon, some fish or 
game, and a steaming aromatic cup of coffee, is 
a far more sustaining and satisfactory meal than 
a soggy dumpling and highly flavoured sauces. 
One always has a good appetite when camping, 
and an abundance of nutritious, simple, well 
cooked food is the most welcome fare. 

It is a difficult matter to describe how to cook, 
but the following brief hints may serve to give you 
ideas as to the resources of camp cookery and may 
be of help to those who have but little knowl- 
edge of cooking with limited supplies and con- 
veniences. 

The simplest of all things to cook are fish and 
game, and while any one can broil or roast a piece 
of meat over the coals, some little knowledge is 
required in order to make such food really pala- 
table and tasty. 

Nearly all four-footed game should be skinned 
and dressed as soon after being killed as possible, 
and, as a rule, all animals should be hung in the 



Camp Housekeeping 91 

shade for several days after being dressed and 
before being cooked. In very hot weather care 
should be taken that the meat is not tainted or fly- 
blown, and small game should be eaten within a 
few hours after being killed, but great care should 
be taken that no game or meat of any description 
is cooked until after all animal heat has dis- 
appeared, as otherwise serious illness may result. 

Birds should be plucked and drawn as soon as 
convenient after being killed, and may be eaten 
as soon as animal heat has all disappeared, or, 
if preferred, they may be kept for a day or two, 
while fish should invariably be cooked as soon 
after being taken from the water as is possible. 

The South American Indians have a method of 
preserving game fresh and free from flies for 
many days, and which is known as ^'Bucanning." 
It is a very simple method and should be more 
widely known and used by campers and dwellers 
in the woods. After being cleaned and skinned, 
or plucked, the game is suspended over a smoky 
fire until thoroughly smoked and slightly cooked 
on the outside. It is then laid aside and may be 
cooked at any time, as required. I have eaten 
game thus bucanned after being kept for two 
weeks in the hot tropical forests of Guiana, and 



92 The Baok of Camping 

yet the meat was as fresh, juicy and well flavoured 
as if freshly killed. 

The simplest method of cooking game is by 
broiling, and there are few methods of cooking 
game which give a better flavour, if properly done. 
But simple as it seems, many a broiled piece of 
meat is rendered unpalatable and indigestible by 
improper cooking, and a few words as to broiling 
may not be amiss. 

To broil a squirrel, rabbit or other small ani- 
mal, first skin and dress carefully and remove all 
bruised or discoloured flesh and blood clots. Cut 
off and throw aside the head and feet, and split 
the body into two parts by cutting longitudinally 
along the backbone. Spit each piece on a hard- 
wood stick and broil over coals until slightly 
seared on both sides. Sprinkle with salt and pep- 
per and cook slowly over the coals until done, 
being careful to turn frequently to insure even 
cooking. 

To broil birds, pick as usual, split open along 
back and remove entrails, sprinkle with salt and 
pepper and broil slowly over coals. 

Grouse or other large birds may be broiled by 
the same method, but a slice of bacon or pork, 
skewered to the upper side, will add greatly to 



Camp Housekeeping 93 

the juiciness and flavour. If the bird is very 
large, or you are in a hurry, slice pieces from the 
breast, disjoint the legs and wings, and spit these 
on a stick with a slice of pork or bacon between 
each piece and broil as usual. 

Slices of venison or beef may be broiled in the 
same way. 

To broil fish, scale and clean. Split down the 
back; flatten out and broil on a grid of green 
sticks or iron over a bed of coals. Before plac- 
ing on an iron grid, the latter should be well 
greased. By placing strips of bacon or pork over 
the fish, a better flavour will be obtained. In 
the case of small fish, the heads should be left on 
and the fish broiled on the end of a green stick, 
like small animals. After the fish are broiled, 
sprinkle with salt and pepper and spread with but- 
ter or fat and hold over the fire until the latter is 
melted. 

Frying Game Birds and Animals. To prepare 
birds or small animals for frying, cut them into 
medium sized pieces, parboil until tender (in the 
case of old or tough birds), sprinkle with salt and 
pepper, roll in flour and fry in melted pork fat or 
bacon. To make gravy, save the grease in the 
pan, stir in half a cup of flour until the frying fat 



94 The Book of Camping 

turns a rich brown, add a little of the water in 
which the game was parboiled, bring to a boil, 
while stirring constantly, and season with pepper 
and salt. 

Fish should be fried by rolling in flour and 
frying in very hot fat. 

Game Fricasseed. Pluck or skin and dress as 
usual and cut into pieces of convenient size. Par- 
boil in enough water to cover and, when tender, 
remove from the pot and drain. Place a few 
pieces of pork or bacon in the frying pan, until 
browned slightly. Season with pepper and salt; 
sprinkle with flour and fry in the pork fat until 
rich brown. Make a thick gravy of the parboil- 
ing water, fat and flour, as already described ; add 
this to the pieces of meat and bring all to a boil. 
Vegetables may be added if desired. 

Fish Chowder, Cut the fish into convenient 
sized pieces and remove as many of the bones as 
possible. Slice and fry a quantity of pork fat, 
(about ^ pound to each 5 pounds of fish), and 
fry until partly browned. Have about a dozen 
potatoes pared and sliced, and fry two medium- 
sized onions in the fat. Place a layer of the fish 
in a good-sized pot and on this place a layer of 
sliced potatoes, then some fried onions, and season 



Camp Housekeeping 95 

with salt and pepper, and add a sprinkling of 
flour. Then place a few slices of pork or bacon 
over all, and repeat the alternate layers of fish, 
potatoes, onions and pork until all have been used. 
Over all, pour the fat from the frying pan, cover 
with boiling water, and cook for half an hour or 
more, according to the quantity of fish and pota- 
toes used. A few minutes before serving, break up 
stale bread or hard biscuits, dip them in cold 
water, add them to the pot of chowder, and pour 
in about a pint of hot milk. 

Chicken Chowder may easily be made from 
canned boneless chicken by placing the contents 
of the tin in water, adding sliced potatoes, onions 
and other vegetables, with broken biscuit or 
crackers if desired, seasoning with pepper and 
salt and boiling until the potatoes are cooked. 

Stewing Rabbits, Birds, or Small Game. Skin 
or pluck and dress as usual; cut into small pieces 
and place in a pot. Cover with water, add rice, 
vegetables and one or two soup tablets or bouillon 
cubes, season with pepper and salt, and boil until 
the meat is tender. 

Muskrats are excellent food and are extensively 
eaten in the Southern States. Skin carefully and 
remove the musk glands, near the root of the tail, 



96 The Book of Camping 

without breaking them. Clean well and place in 
cold water. Bring to a boil for a few minutes, 
strain off water and fry, broil, or roast, as desired. 

Turtles are all edible, with the exception of the 
musk turtle, and even the wood tortoises are tooth- 
some, although there is little meat on them. First 
kill the turtles, by plunging in boiling water, and 
as soon as dead remove and allow to cool. Lay 
the turtle on its back and, with an axe, hatchet, 
machete or stout knife, cut the joint where the 
two shells join. Pull off the lower shell, remove 
entrails and gall bladder, cut off head and skin 
the legs and remove toes and outer surface of shell, 
which will be loosened by the hot water. Place 
the turtle in a pot of fresh hot water and boil until 
the meat comes away from the bones. Remove 
bones and add vegetables, seasoning, etc., and 
boil until the vegetables are cooked. 

An excellent way to bake fish, birds or small 
game is to roast them in clay. Dress the game 
without skinning or plucking, enclose the bird or 
animal in a thick layer of clay and place the whole 
in the midst of a bed of hot coals. Cover over 
with more coals, and in about an hour rake out the 
clay, which will be baked hard. Break this open 
and the feathers or fur will come away with the 



Camp Housekeeping 97 

clay and will leave the meat beautifully cooked. 
This is an excellent method for cooking porcu- 
pines, whose spines are very troublesome if one 
attempts to skin the prickly creatures. 

Vegetables are easy to cook, and to prepare 
dried vegetables is a very simple matter, for all 
that is necessary is to place them in boiling water, 
stir and add seasoning. Fresh vegetables should 
be boiled until thoroughly cooked, and to save 
time they should be placed in plain cold water, 
as a large portion of the cooking will be accom- 
plished while the water is coming to a boil. 
Dried potatoes make excellent griddle cakes. 
After being thoroughly cooked, mash with a fork 
or flattened stick until a smooth paste is obtained. 
Mix this with flour, moisten well, until a tenacious 
mass is obtained, pat into cakes, sprinkle with dry 
flour, and fry in a pan with bacon fat, butter or 
other grease. 

Flapjacks are one of the old stand-bys of camp 
cuisine, and every camper should know how to 
make them. To two pints of flour, add two heap- 
ing teaspoonfuls of baking powder, one level tea- 
spoonful of salt, two or three spoonfuls of dried 
eggy and mix thoroughly while dry. Add six 
heaping dessertspoonfuls of evaporated milk 



98 The Book of Camping 

and water (or an equivalent amount of dry milk 
or fresh milk), add water slowly, while mixing, 
until a smooth, uniform thick batter results. The 
batter should be thin enough to drip or run freely 
from a spoon, but not too thin or watery. Fry in 
a pan greased with fat or lard. You will find it 
easier to fry small cakes at first, as these may 
easily be turned with a broad bladed knife, but 
after a little practise, you will be able to make 
cakes the full size of the bottom of the pan and to 
turn them over by a twist of the pan. When you 
can toss a flapjack a foot or two in the air and 
catch it, other side up, on the pan, you can con- 
sider yourself a true camp cook. The only diffi- 
culty in making flapjacks is in mixing the batter 
to the proper consistency. If too thin, it will 
make brittle, tough cakes, and if too thick, it will 
be difficult to cook the centre before the outer sur- 
faces are scorched. The best method, until you 
are sure of the proportions, is to make a thick bat- 
ter and add water gradually until the right con- 
sistency is obtained, as it is easier to thin the batter 
than to thicken it. 

Another strictly camp dish is known as Dope, 
and is prepared as follows: Cut about a pound 
of salt pork into small dice-shaped pieces, place 



Camp Housekeeping 99 

them on the pan with a little water and boil 
for one minute. Pour off the water and fry the 
pork until slightly browned. Remove the pieces 
of pork and into the hot fat rub three or four 
spoonfuls of flour, with pepper and salt to season, 
and cook the flour without allowing it to brown or 
scorch. When perfectly smooth and free from 
lumps, add a quart of water, in which 12 dessert- 
spoonfuls of evaporated milk, or an equal amount 
of dried milk, has been dissolved (or use half and 
half water and fresh milk) . Bring this to a boil 
slowly, stir constantly, add the pork and serve. 
This is probably the best of all methods of serving 
pork, and it is also good when used for a sauce 
or gravy, while at a pinch it will serve excellently 
in place of butter, and will prove delicious on hot 
griddle cakes in place of syrup. 

Corn Bread or Johnny Cake is another simple 
and healthy dish for camp use. To one pint of 
flour, add one pint of yellow corn meal, two heap- 
ing teaspoonfuls of baking powder, one level tea- 
spoonful of salt, two dessertspoonfuls of dried 
egg, one teaspoonful of sugar, and cold pork fat or 
lard the size of an egg. Mix thoroughly while 
dry; add six heaping dessertspoonfuls of evapor- 
ated milk, or an equal amount of dried milk, and 



100 The Book of Camping 

add cold water sufficient to form a thick batter, 
and stir until thoroughly mixed. Pour into a 
greased pan, place the pan on a bed of dull coals 
or hot ashes, cover it tightly, and place hot ashes 
or coals over it. Bake about 20 minutes, or until 
the cake is thoroughly cooked. One or two trials 
will serve to give you an idea of how long the pan 
should remain in the ashes. 

Baked Beans are another most important camp 
dish. They are easy to prepare, but they require 
a long time to cook and can only be recommended 
for permanent camps or when a stop of several 
days is made. Wash the beans and parboil until, 
when placed upon a spoon and blown upon, the 
skins will split open. When boiled to this state, 
drain off the water, wash in cold water and drain 
again. Now, place beans in the pot for a depth 
of two inches, and on them place about a pound of 
pork and add the rest of the beans. Season with 
salt and pepper, add a dessertspoonful of sugar, 
and cover all with warm water. Cover the bean 
pot with a thin cloth and force the lid tightly in 
place. For an oven, have a hole about a foot 
deep and about a foot in diameter in the ground, 
and in this have a good fire burning for several 
hours before you wish to bake, and place a num- 



Camp Housekeeping loi 

ber of stones in the fire. When the stones are red 
hot, scrape out the ashes, coals and stones, place 
the pot of beans in the hole, cover it over with 
coals, hot stones and ashes, and finally place 
earth over all. Leave for 8 to 10 hours, and 
remove, when beans will be found to be thor- 
oughly cooked. In rainy weather, cover the spot 
where the pot is buried with a slab of bark. 

To Boil Rice seems like a very simple matter, 
but it requires some practice and skill to cook rice 
properly. First wash and rinse the rice, drain 
and place the grain in boiling water, in the pro- 
portion of a cup of rice to each 2 quarts of water. 
Add 2 teaspognfuls of salt and boil hard for 15 to 
30 minutes, stirring frequently and adding more 
hot water as the water boils away. When done, 
the rice should be soft and each grain separate. 
Too long boiling will produce a mushy, sticky 
mass. W^hen cooked, drain off the water and set 
the pot near the fire or on the hot ashes for a 
moment, in order to drive off any water which 
may remain. 

Hasty Pudding or Corn Meal Mush is made 
by stirring corn meal into cold water in the pro- 
portion of 1 cup of meal to 1 quart of water, to 
which ^ teaspoonful of salt should be added. 



102 The Book of Camping 

Bring to a boil, while stirring constantly, and boil 
for fifteen minutes or until thoroughly cooked. 

Hasty pudding may be fried, if allowed to cool, 
when it should be cut into slices, rolled in flour 
and fried in very hot grease. 

Braising. Tough meat of any sort may be 
greatly improved by braising in a covered pot or 
saucepan. This method is particularly good for 
bear meat, round of beef, or venison shoulders or 
haunches. 

Place the meat in the pot with about two inches 
of water over the bottom and add a bit of bacon or 
pork. In the case of bear meat, this should be 
omitted. Put in some chopped onions, herbs, or 
other seasoning, cover the pot and cook for 15 
minutes to each pound of meat. While cooking, 
sprinkle with salt and pepper and make the gravy 
by adding a little water to the grease and thicken- 
ing with flour until the proper consistency is 
obtained. 

To roast properly, build a good fire of hard- 
wood against a rock or a large green backlog. 
Sear the outside of the roast in the clear flame, 
skewer on thin slices of pork at one end, and hang 
the meat closer to the fire by a strong wet string 
or withe. 



Camp Housekeeping 103 

Have the slices of pork on the upper side, turn 
the meat frequently, and place a pan or green 
bark trough beneath it to catch the drippings. 
Each time the roast is turned, it should be basted 
with the drippings. 

For broiling, coals should always be used, 
while for roasting, a hot fire is the best. If you 
are frying, do not attempt to use a flaming fire or 
a large bed of coals, as the grease may catch fire. 
Either make a small fire of dry sticks not thicker 
than your finger, and feed this from time to time 
to maintain a steady heat, or else rake a thin layer 
of coals in front of the fire and add new coals as 
the bed dies down. 

Occasionally you may have so much game or 
fish that you cannot use all of it at one time, and 
in such cases you should know how to preserve 
the supply for future use. 

I have already mentioned "bucanning," but 
there are many other effective ways of keeping 
meat for a long time. 

Venison will keep very well without any prep- 
aration, and, in fact, this meat is not really good 
until it has hung for a long time. If a handful 
of salt is placed in an incision in a haunch of 
venison, the meat will keep for weeks. In warm 



104 The Book of Camping 

weather, venison may be rubbed with flour, sewn 
up in a bag of cheesecloth, and hung in a shady 
spot, and if thus prepared and the bag is tight, 
the meat will keep for several weeks. 

Fish may readily be dried by splitting them 
along the back, removing backbones and entrails 
and rubbing the fish with salt, after which they 
should be hung on a frame over a smoky fire. If 
a small, conical, tepee-like bark structure is made 
and a fire built within it, the fish may be thor- 
oughly smoked by suspending them within the 
tepee for three or four days. 



PART II 

TRAILING AND TRAMPING 



CHAPTER IV 

TRAILS. BLAZING A WAY. SIGNALLING. DIREC- 
TION AND DISTANCE. MEASURING HEIGHTS 
AND DISTANCES. 

ONE may camp out for years and never 
acquire a knowledge of woodcraft if 
hired guides or woodsmen are employed, 
but one never knows when a knowledge of wood- 
craft, of trailing, or of similar matters, may be 
necessary. It is an easy method to depend upon 
one's guides and never give a thought to the mys- 
teries of woodcraft, but it is much wiser to be able 
to depend upon yourself and to feel confident that 
you can follow a trail, find your way or eke out a 
living in the woods without any one to aid you, 
and every camper should strive to become as 
skilled in woodcraft as the professional guide. 

Not only is such a knowledge valuable and 
important as a safeguard, but in addition the 
pleasures of out of door life are greatly enhanced 

if the camper is a good woodsman, able to follow 

107 



io8 The Book of Camping 

a trail, to find his way or to travel through the 
forest by nature's signs, and to convey his wishes 
and directions by means of signals from a dis- 
tance ; in short, to feel no fear or hesitation about 
going anywhere in the wilderness without danger 
of going astray or of suffering from want. 

The question of becoming lost is a very grave 
one, even in fairly small areas of forest, and many 
a camper loses much of the enjoyment of his stay 
in the woods through fear of going astray if he 
wanders out of sight of camp. 

The first thing every camper should learn in 
regard to woodcraft is to follow a trail. In our 
northern forests, trails or routes are usually indi- 
cated by marks or * 'blazes" cut on the trees, and 
while these may prove meaningless and confusing 
to the novice, yet they are very easy to understand 
and convey a clear story to the woodsman. In- 
deed, we often speak of a person "leaving a blazed 
trail behind him," when we wish to convey the 
idea that his footsteps are easy to follow, and for 
the same reason, we hear of explorers and pio- 
neers "blazing a way for civilisation." 

Almost any one can follow a blazed trail by 
looking for the spots or blazes on the trees, but it 
is quite a different matter for one to "read" the 



Trails and Signalling 109 

trail and proceed accordingly, for there are numer- 
ous forms of these marks, and each form, as well 
as its position, has a definite meaning. Once 
these meanings are learned, one can follow any 
trail as easily and surely as if the way were 
marked by signposts, for the blazes, like pigeon- 
English, is a "lingua franca" of the woods, and 
is understood by all versed in woodcraft. 

As with every other rule, there are exceptions 
to this, however, and quite frequently one may 
come upon blazes which convey no meaning what- 
ever, even to the experienced woodsman. But 
these are usually of no real value or importance, 
for they are merely private marks, indicating 
some particular location, trap or other item of 
interest only to the maker or his companions. 

All regular blazes may be classed under three 
general heads : the first consisting of a single mark 
or blaze; the second of two blazes side by side, 
and the third, of three or more marks, one over 
another. The first is the ordinary everyday trail 
mark, used to denote the path or trail ; the second 
shows turns or direction, and the last warns of 
danger, or spots where caution is necessary before 
proceeding. 

These three classes of blazes are illustrated in 



110 The Book of Camping 

Figs, 1, 2, 3, 4, In Fig. 1, the single mark or 
trail blaze is shown. Such a mark means that 
you should proceed straight ahead to the next 
mark. When such a blaze as in Fig. 2 is seen, 
you should turn to the right and look about for the 
next single mark, while if you come to the mark 
shown in Fig. 2, a turn to the left should be made. 
Three spots in perpendicular line, as in Fig. 4, 
show that danger is near, and you should move 
carefully. It may be a bad windfall, a hidden 
hole or gorge, a trap, or any other danger, and as 
long as the three marks are in sight, go forward 
slowly and cautiously until the regular single 
marks again appear. Sometimes the position of 
the danger is indicated by a mark at one side, 
but in any case the three marks are equivalent 
to a red flag or a red light, and call for cau- 
tion. 

In addition to these three simple forms of 
blazes, there are various combinations in which 
two or more are used, as illustrated in Figs. 5, 6, 
7. Thus, in Fig. 5, the blazes indicate that dan- 
ger lurks to the right, and hence you should pass 
to the left, while Fig. 6 shows a danger at left, 
and consequently you should turn to the right. 
Fig. 7, however, indicates a survey line, and warns 




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112 The Book of Camping 

the woodsman not to cut or injure the trees upon 
which it appears. 

Still other combinations are shown in Figs, 8, 
9, These are camp marks, as indicated by the 
long perpendicular blaze, while the marks to right 
or left and below show whether the camp site lies 
to right or left of the trail. Such marks as are 
shown in Figs, 10, 11, are private blazes and of 
importance only to those who made them, or to 
those who understand their significance. 

When a trail is frequently traversed, the way 
is kept plain by each passing traveller chopping 
blazes afresh, and so, on a well-used trail, prac- 
tically every tree will bear a blaze and one may 
follow it rapidly and easily. An old trail, or one 
which is seldom used, may be very difficult to fol- 
low, however, for the blazes become weathered 
and healed, and it is often very hard to find the 
marks. 

Whenever you go into a strange forest, or when 
one of the party is straggling behind, you should 
always blaze a trail for the others to follow. It 
is an easy matter to whack off a bit of the trees, 
as you walk along, and this fresh trail will serve 
to guide those behind you, as well as to enable you 
to retrace your steps with ease and certainty. In 



Trails and Signalling 113 

case you wish to identify your own trail or to indi- 
cate your presence to others, you should make 
your blazes of distinctive size or form. An old 
woodsman can recognise the trail marks of all his 
friends and acquaintances by the form or position 
of their blazes. 

You will soon find that, with a little practise, 
it is very easy to blaze a good trail, and that it 
takes little time to do so, as you tramp through 
the woods, for all you have to do is to chop a bit 
of bark from the trees, a few rods apart. Don't 
make the marks either too high or too low, for, in 
the first case, they are hard to see, and, in the 
second, they may become concealed by brush, 
while if made about the height of one's shoulder, 
they will catch the eye readily. 

While blazes are most extensively used in indi- 
cating trails through a forested country, it is im- 
possible to mark a trail in this way where trees 
are scarce or absent. But it is just as easy to indi- 
cate a trail or to follow one in such places as it is 
to make or follow a blazed trail in the woods. 

There are several methods of doing this, and 
the trail in open country may be marked by stones, 
bent or broken twigs, or wisps or bunches of 
grass or reeds, as shown in Figs. 12 to 23. 



114 The Book of Camping 

But, no matter which method is employed, the 
same symbols and combinations are used as on a 
blazed trail. Thus, one stone or another, a single 
bent or broken branch, or a single tied or twisted 
bunch of grass, as in Figs. 12, 16, 20, shows the 
straight trail. A stone to right or left of a trail 
mark, a twig pointing to either side, or a bunch of 
grass pointed to right or left, as in Figs, 13, 14, 
17, 18, 21, 22, indicates a turn, while three stones, 
a separate twig resting on another, or three wisps 
of grass, means danger or caution. Figs, 15, 19, 
23. 

Much time may profitably be spent in learning 
to make and read these various trail marks, and 
until you are sure of your memory and of the 
meaning of all these symbols, you should carry a 
slip of paper or a card on which the various 
marks and their meanings are shown. 

Oftentimes you may find yourself in strange 
woods, where there are no blazed trails and while, 
by blazing a trail as you proceed, you may be able 
to retrace your steps, yet this will not enable you 
to reach your objective point or prevent you from 
going in a roundabout, erratic manner from one 
place to another. A compass is a great help, and 
you should always carry one, but unless you know 



Trails and Signalling 115 

in which direction you wish to go or the direction 
in which your objective point lies from your camp, 
the compass will serve merely to guide you in a 
straight line and to prevent you from travelling in 
a circle. If about to trail through a strange coun- 
try, always strive to secure the bearings of some 
prominent landmark, such as hills, rivers, moun- 
tains, etc., and the really proficient woodsman 
should instinctively note such landmarks and bear 
their position in mind as he proceeds. 

Moss on trees or rocks often indicates the points 
of the compass, but this varies a great deal in 
various places, and it often puzzles an expert to 
decide on which side of an object the moss is 
thickest. 

Dead or stunted branches on one side of a tree 
usually indicate the northern side, and by training 
your eyes to note the little differences between the 
opposite sides of trees, and many other little de- 
tails, you will soon find that you can tell which is 
north and which south, although you cannot easily 
explain just how you know. 

If there is a bright sun, a watch may be made 
to serve as a compass, on a pinch. If the dial is 
held horizontally, with the hour hand pointing 
at the sun and so that the shadow of the hour hand 



ii6 The Book of Camping 

is directly under the hand itself, then half the 
distance between that point and the figure 1 2 will 
be south, if before noon, and, counting from left 
to right, or southward, and if afternoon, counting 
backward, or from right to left. {Fig. 27.) Of 
course, this is only approximate, and it varies 
more or less with the season and latitude, but it 
will serve roughly as a guide, and to denote the 
points of the compass, and will prevent you from 
walking in a circle, which is the greatest danger 
when lost in the woods. 

But there is no danger of this happening if 
you make it a rule to blaze a trail as you proceed, 
for, by sighting back to the last two or three 
marks, you can always follow a fairly straight 
line. 

Although blazed trails and similar marks will 
be found of the utmost value in guiding you 
through the woods, there are limits to their use- 
fulness, and the messages or signals which may 
be conveyed by marks on trees, stones, bent twigs 
or bunches of grass, often fall far short of one's 
requirements. 

Oftentimes it is essential that you should be 
able to communicate with other members of your 
party when at a distance, or, in case one of the 



Trails and Signalling 117 

party is lost, it is of the utmost importance that 
you should be able to let him know of your posi- 
tion or the position of the camp, or that he should 
have means of notifying his friends of his 
plight. 

In case of accidents, also, a means of communi- 
cating one's position may make all the difference 
between life and death, while still another val- 
uable use for signalling is when various members 
of a party separate in search of game, water, 
camping places, etc. Then any discoveries made 
by one member of the party may be communicated 
to the others, and all may be brought together 
without loss of time or weary hours of tramp- 
ing unnecessarily. 

Among savage peoples, various methods of sig- 
nalling are employed, and, while some of these 
are very intricate and complicated, others are very 
simple, and you will be surprised to find how 
much information may be conveyed by the sim- 
plest codes and methods. 

There are various means of signalling, but for 
long distances fires or smokes are most widely 
used. In case of bright sunlight or in open coun- 
try, as well as on high hills, unobstructed by trees, 
signals are often made by flashes of light, while 



ii8 The Book of Camping 

at comparatively short distances, hats, flags or 
other objects may be used. 

Smokes are particularly useful where the coun- 
try is wooded or there are no high eminences, and 
on a calm day a good smoke signal may be seen 
for an extremely long distance. Fires at night 
serve the same purpose, while the flash of a mir- 
ror or a bright metal surface may be seen for many 
miles. This is the basis of the heliograph used 
by the army, and while a real heliograph may 
easily be made, a pocket mirror will serve all ordi- 
nary purposes. 

No matter which system is used, the ordinary 
signals are similar to the symbols described for 
trail marks. Thus one smoke, fire or flash, indi- 
cates location; two smokes, fires or flashes, indi- 
cate trouble or the desire for aid, while three 
smokes, fires or flashes, convey good news or that 
a hunt or search has been successful. Last of all, 
are four signals, which are used to summon all 
members of the party to a common meeting place 
or to camp. 

These are all illustrated in Figs. 24, 25, 26, and 
by adding others, or varying these, or by arrang- 
ing combinations among the various members of 
the party, almost any message or even a long con- 



Trails and Signalling 119 

versation, may be carried on. A better way is to 
use the telegraphic code, and as the standard 
Morse code has many spaced dots, which are diffi- 
cult to signal, and as the Continental has none, the 
latter is by all means the best code to use, as fol- 
lows: 

CONTINENTAL CODE 



A . 


- B - . 


.. c- 


- . 


- . 


D - 


- . . 


E . 


F .. - 


- . G-- 


. H 


. . . 


. I 


, . 


J- 





K- . 


- L . - 


.. M 


— ■ 


- N 


- . 








P . - 


- • Q- 


— . - 


R 


. — . 


s 




T- 


U..- 


V...- 


W.- 


— 


X-. 


, - 


Y- 


• . 


Z-- 

















DD means a call or "signalling." WW 
means ^'answering." F F means "spelling." 
IMI means "repeat." AAA means "full stop." 
G means "go on." MG means "wait." RT 
means "right." FI means "numeral." 

If you do not know the code or do not care to 
learn it you can carry a copy with you and by re- 
ferring to it you will be able to send or read any 
message by means of smokes, fires or flashes. In 
thus signalling, a dot is represented by one flash 
smoke or fire of about one second's duration, a 
dash should be two seconds and a space four sec- 



120 The Book of Camping 

onds, while for a full stop, or space between words, 
a space of six to ten seconds should be allowed. 
To use the code with a fire, a blanket or coat 
should be held in front of the fire and by removing 
this for the proper length of time a dot or dash 
may be indicated while the fire should be hidden 
for four to ten seconds according to whether a 
space between letters or words is desired. Smoke 
signals are made by building a good fire, covering 
it with damp wood, leaves or sod until a dense 
smoke rises, and using a wet blanket, coat or can- 
vas to stop the smoke. If this is quickly removed 
and replaced various sized puffs of smoke are pro- 
duced and these indicate the dots and dashes of 
the code. In the same way a short flash from a 
mirror indicates a dot and a longer flash a dash 
while the intervals between show spaces or stops 
according to their length. 

When the signaller is within view of those to 
whom he is signalling a stick with a flag, and a 
cap or hat may be used to transmit the code. The 
stick or flag should be held in one hand and the 
cap in the other. The stick, board or flag means 
a dash and the cap means a dot while both arms 
lowered indicates a space and both arms up means 
a full stop (Fig. 28). 




futiSjtoi^ 




121 



122 The Book of Camping 

Still another method is to use two flags of dif- 
ferent colours or shapes and, by arranging before- 
hand which colour or shape means a dot and 
which a dash, a code may be used which is un- 
intelligible to all save those in the secret. 

A very important item in woodcraft is the abil- 
ity to judge direction and distance. Many people 
possess a sort of sixth sense by which they uncon- 
sciously know the direction in which they are mov- 
ing, or the relative positions of places, and no 
matter how often they turn or move about they 
never become confused or go astray, indeed, it is 
really a sort of instinct and is absolutely lacking 
in the majority of people. It is a natural gift to 
be able to do this, but nearly every one possesses 
some idea of direction and, if developed by prac- 
tice and observation, the average person can learn 
to carry direction and relative positions in his 
mind to a remarkable degree. 

To judge distances accurately is more a matter 
of practice and judgment than anything else, and 
many woodsmen are wonderfully expert at this. 
The average man is a very poor judge of distance, 
especially in the woods, and no two people will 
have the same idea of a distance tramped, or of 
one object from another. Moreover, a man who 



Trails and Signalling 123 

is able to judge distances in one locality, or under 
certain familiar conditions, may be absolutely 
at a loss under other conditions or in other places, 
for the atmospheric conditions, the elevation, the 
character of the country, the hour of the day and 
one's own physical condition have much to do 
with one's ideas of distances. For example, the 
first time a person walks over a certain trail or 
route the way invariably seems longer than after 
the trail becomes familiar and a distance always 
seems shorter when one is fresh than when one is 
tired or hungry. So too, in rough or hilly coun- 
try, or in heavy woods, a ten mile tramp may 
seem twenty miles or more, while, if one is hunting 
or interested in the surroundings, a long distance 
may seem very short. In hazy weather objects 
appear further away than in clear weather; on 
moonlight nights nearer than on dark nights; in 
early morning nearer or farther than at midday 
or evening and, when seen from a height, distant 
places may appear close at hand. All these fac- 
tors must be taken into consideration when judg- 
ing of distance and much practice under varying 
conditions is necessary before a person can hope 
to guess a distance within many miles under all 
conditions. 



124 The Book of Camping 

It may seem a matter of little importance to 
be able to judge distances correctly, but in reality 
it is a very important branch of woodcraft. If 
you know a certain locality is a definite distance 
away you must be able to judge distances in order 
to know when you reach the desired spot, or again, 
you may often see a hill, mountain, lake or river 
which you wish to reach and unless you can judge 
of its distance, as well as bear in mind its direc- 
tion while travelling towards it, you will not know 
how much time will be required to reach it or how 
far or in what direction to travel to it. 

In such cases the ability to judge direction and 
distance, and to follow the route in mind unerr- 
ingly, is of great importance, for the object you 
seek may be invisible or hidden from sight as you 
proceed towards it, and unless your mind is 
trained to woodcraft you may miss the desired 
spot or be obliged to wander about and do a 
lot of unnecessary travelling before you find 
it. 

Still another matter which should be given at- 
tention is a knowledge of how to measure the 
height of objects, the elevation of land above 
water, or the height of a hill above level country, 
the distance across ravines, lakes or streams, etc., 



Trails and Signalling 125 

and to do this with real accuracy, which is a very 
simple matter once you know how. 

I have already mentioned the compass and 
while nearly every one has some idea of the use of 
a compass and its various points few persons can 
name more than the eight cardinal points or can 
lay a course or route by compass and follow it. 
Under ordinary conditions the fact that a place 
was north, east, south, west or northeast, south- 
east, etc., might be sufficient; but if one is follow- 
ing a trail through the woods, across a plain or 
prairie, or over a lake or large body of water, the 
difference of a point or two in the compass bear- 
ings might cause you to miss your destination com- 
pletely. 

On short distances such a slight variation might 
make no difference, but on a tramp or voyage of 
twenty-five miles or more the deviation of a quar- 
ter point from the exact bearings would make a 
vast difference at the end of the trip. This is 
easily understood when you stop to realise that 
two straight lines, drawn . from the centre of a 
circle outward, always form an angle and that 
the two sides of this angle separate more and more 
the further they are extended, so the greater the 
distance to be travelled, the more careful you must 



126 The Book of Camping 

be to lay and follow your course by compass. 
Hence, when travelling with a compass as a guide, 
you must refer to the instrument frequently and 
must correct your course each time and unless you 
take care you may go astray in doing this. The 
best plan is to make a sketch or plan of the pro- 
posed route, with starting and objective points 
indicated, and with a straight line connecting the 
two and laid down accurately with the compass 
bearings. Then, by frequently comparing your 
plan with your compass as you proceed, judging 
the distances travelled and noting each deviation 
or alteration in your course on the sketch, you can 
reach the desired spot with accuracy. This is 
exactly what a sailor does when navigating by 
dead reckoning. Of course the necessity of this 
procedure is evident if there are obstacles or ob- 
structions in your way while, if crossing a lake or 
level land where a straight course may be fol- 
lowed, it is scarcely necessary. Thus, if you find 
your objective point is northeast of your starting 
point you may be obliged to travel southeast in 
order to go around some swamp, cliff, pond or 
other obstruction and unless you can judge the 
distance you travel southeast and jot this and the 
direction you have travelled on your sketch map 



Trails and Signalling 127 

you will find it extremely difficult to get back on 
your original course. This is more readily un- 
derstood by referring to Fig. 29, which shows 
a rough sketch of a route from a camp site by a 
lake to a mountain pass. Although the pass lies 
due northeast from the camp, yet the route trav- 
elled was so circuitous and indirect that the trav- 
eller moved in nearly every direction, even going 
southwest at times, in traversing the course, and 
if he had depended entirely upon his sense of 
direction, or upon an occasional glance at his 
compass, he would have gone hopelessly astray 
as shown by the dotted line, which indicates the 
course he would have followed had he always 
moved in a northeasterly direction each time he 
referred to his compass, or if he had failed to 
record his movements on the map. But don't 
expect your compass to ^'show you the way." It 
is a very useful instrument if understood and 
properly used, but it possesses no supernatural 
powers and its value depends upon your own 
common sense and knowledge; without this a 
compass is utterly useless. In addition to the 
compass there are many other ways of determin- 
ing one's position or of following a fairly direct 
line. Thus the North or Pole Star is an abso- 



128 The Book of Camping 

lutely reliable guide and every person who spends 
any time in the woods should be able to recog- 
nise and locate the Pole Star. This is easily done 
by finding the constellation known as the Great 
Bear or Great Dipper in the northern sky. Then, 
by running an imaginary line from the two outer 
stars of the Dipper, — ^the upper most of which 
forms the "lip" of the dipper or the "breast" of 
the Bear — and from the bottom of the dipper or 
foot of the bear upward, the first bright star on 
this line will be the North Star. As the dipper 
rotates around the Pole Star the constellation will 
sometimes be above and sometimes below or at 
one side of the north star; but if the imaginary 
line is run up from the bottom across the breast 
of the bear or lip of the dipper the North Star may 
always be located as shown in Fig. 30, provided 
of course the night is clear. 

I have already mentioned the importance of 
being able to gauge distance accurately. To 
measure long distances the easiest method is to 
pace over them and with a little practice and by 
measuring the length of your strides you can learn 
to pace a distance of several hundred yards quite 
accurately. An ordinary man's pace is about 
three feet or a yard on smooth level ground, but 



Trails and Signalling 129 

in hilly or broken country, on soft ground, or in 
the woods, the length of a pace must of necessity 
vary and only by repeatedly pacing or walking 
over various kinds of ground and averaging the 
length of your strides can you expect to obtain a 
fair idea of distances travelled in this manner. 

There is a little instrument known as the pe- 
dometer which will give you a very good idea of 
distances walked and every camper should carry 
one. But as this instrument is simply a device 
for recording and adding up your steps it must 
be adjusted to suit your stride or you must correct 
and check up results by experiment and as it 
records every step, whether short or long, you must 
test the pedometer by travelling known distances 
over various kinds of country and then adding or 
subtracting a definite percentage from the readings 
of the instrument when you use it. 

For short distances, and to determine the length 
or height of various objects, there are much more 
simple and accurate means of measurement and 
every camper and woodsman should know how to 
measure the width of streams or gorges, the height 
of trees and the levels of hills or other heights 
without the aid of surveying instruments or com- 
plex mathematics. 



130 The Book of Camping 

To determine the height of an object is perhaps 
more simple than to measure a distance and may 
be accomplished as follows: 

Suppose, for example, you wish to measure the 
height of a large tree. First place a stick or pole 
upright in the ground so that a definite height, say 
6 feet, is above the surface of the earth, Fig, 21 

Then place your face close to the surface of 
the ground and sight across the top of the pole to 
the top of the tree and move further away or 
nearer, until the top of the pole comes exactly in 
line with the top of the tree as shown at C-E and 
measure the distance from your eye to the base of 
the pole, C-B, and from base of tree to your eye 
C-D. If you find the distance from pole to eye 
to be ten feet and from base of tree to eye 100 feet 
then, by the simple sum in ratio of 10 : 6 : : 100 : X, 
you obtain the result 60 feet as the correct height 
of the tree. 

To determine the distance of an object from the 
observer, or the width of a stream, pond, ravine 
or other space, is equally simple. 

First, select some prominent landmark such as 
a tree, rock or building, or erect a pole on the 
further side of the stream, and use this as a sight 



■-*.. 



5* rr\L^\^ 




^/j33J5 



3&J^t 



^/^A^ 



- 96^. rt^i'its * -. . r- 




131 



132 The Book of Camping 

(Fig. 32 X) . Next make a small equilateral tri- 
angle by placing three straight sticks of equal 
length upon the ground and in such a position 
that by sighting along one of the sides the corners 
A, B will come in line with X. Mark the three 
angles, A, B, C, with small stones or short sticks 
pushed into the earth and walk along in line with 
the marks A, C, until the triangle, when placed 
upon the ground, will have the angles E, F in 
line with X and the side D, F will come in line 
with the marks A, C. Then, by measuring the 
distance from A to F, you can learn the distance 
from G to X, for this is always % of the distance 
from A to F. Thus, if from A to F is 96 feet, 
you may be sure that from G to X is 84 feet. 

Finally there is the matter of levelling, or in 
other words, determining the depth of a depres- 
sion or the height of a hill. This is easily accom- 
plished if you have a pail or bucket, a knife and a 
tape or rule for measuring. Suppose there is a 
shallow hollow whose depth you wish to learn. 
Cut a thin flat piece of wood a little shorter than 
the diameter of the bucket and in each end insert 
a little mast or post, the two being of exactly the 
same height (Fig. 33 A). Now fill the bucket 
with water and secure a straight sapling or pole. 



Trails and Signalling 133 

Mark off spaces of a foot apart on the pole for 
ten feet or so and make each mark easily visible 
by cutting away some of the bark or attaching 
short cross pieces. Place the marked pole up- 
right in the ground at the bottom of the depres- 
sion, and place the pail upon the edge of the de- 
pression with the board and its two little masts 
towards the pole and, if the hollow is not deeper 
than the height of your pole, you will be able to 
note the foot mark which comes in line with the 
tops of the masts. By deducting the distance 
from the bottom of the pail to the tops of the 
masts from the mark upon the pole you will know 
the depth of the hollow. If, on the other hand, 
the hole is deeper than the height of your pole, 
you will have to use a longer rod or else move the 
rod towards the pail until your sights come in 
line with the marks upon the rod. Then meas- 
ure the distance from the pail to the rod, set the 
pail where the pole was before, move the pole 
further into the hollow and again sight across the 
masts. By doing this several times and measur- 
ing the distances from pail to rod each time and 
adding the total heights obtained, you will not 
only be able to determine the depth of the depres- 
sion but will be able also to make a sectional dia- 



134 The Book of Camping 

gram of the hollow. Moreover, by this method, 
you can learn where the lowest part of the de- 
pression is situated, for as soon as the sights show 
the depth is becoming less you can be sure that 
the greatest depression is passed. This is more 
readily understood by referring to Fig. 33 B, 
which shows a sectional sketch of a hollow made 
by the methods described. This is also an excel- 
lent way for finding whether apparently level land 
rises or falls and also the height of land above 
water, as well as the height of a hill, for by placing 
the pail on the hilltop and treating the slopes like 
the sides of the depression an accurate outline of 
the hill and its height can be obtained. 

By combining the use of the compass, the pe- 
dometer or paces, the use of triangulation for de- 
termining heights and distances and the simple 
bucket level a very accurate map of any locality 
may be made and you will find that in many 
cases such a sketch map, although made without 
the aid of instruments, is very useful and valuable. 



CHAPTER V 

HOW TO TRAP AND WHY 

Traps and snares. Curing hides and skins. Making 
moccasins. 

MANY a man has suffered untold priva- 
tions, and many more have lost their 
lives, while surrounded with food and 
all the necessities of life, merely through igno- 
rance of the woods and wild life, or through in- 
ability to wrest a livelihood from nature. 

There are few places in the north where a man 
can not manage to exist for months when deprived 
of every aid of civilisation, provided he is skilled 
in woodcraft, possesses self reliance and deter- 
mines not to be beaten. Of course no one goes 
into the woods or to camp expecting to be stranded 
without food, garments or the ordinary necessities 
of life, but an upset canoe, a fire, or any one of 
a dozen other accidents, may leave a camper in 
such a plight and for that reason one should ever 
be prepared for any eventuality. Not only should 

135 



136 The Book of Camping 

you know how to find your way, how to signal 
and follow a trail, how to build a fire without 
matches and how to make a good camp, but in 
addition, you should be capable of getting a liv- 
ing from the woods and streams ; you should know 
how to trap and fish, how to tan skins and how 
to make rude but warm and serviceable garments 
from the hides of the creatures you kill. 

A man or boy who is really skilled in wood- 
craft should be able to go into the wilderness with 
nothing but the garments he wears, a knife and his 
brains and yet live safely, even in comparative 
comfort, for at least a year. Several men and a 
few women have done more than this and have 
entered the forest naked and without a single tool, 
implement or appliance of any sort and yet have 
lived for months and have come forth to civilisa- 
tion, well, strong, clad in warm garments and 
armed with effective weapons. Few men are pro- 
ficient enough to accomplish such feats, however, 
and seldom will it be necessary under ordinary 
conditions ; but the more you can rely upon your- 
self and the more capable you are of winning a 
livelihood from the woods the more you will enjoy 
your camping experiences and the less will be the 
chances of any serious casuality occurring. 



How to Trap and Why 137 

One of the first things you should learn is how 
to trap, for even if you don't expect to kill or 
trap birds or animals, — even if you strongly ob- 
ject to the destruction of wild life of any sort, — 
the time may come when you will be obliged to 
kill and trap in order to keep life in your own 
body, or you may find yourself reduced to such 
extremities that you are compelled to use the 
warm skins of animals and birds to prevent your- 
self from dying of exposure. 

Trapping at its best is cruel, but in order to 
preserve one's life and health cruelty of this sort 
is excusable; but this does not mean that you 
should disregard the sufferings of wild creatures, 
and every right minded person who traps or hunts 
should strive to kill his prey as mercifully as 
possible, whether he takes life through necessity 
or not. 

Hence, if you are obliged to set traps, be sure 
and use those which cause as little suffering as 
possible, and be careful to visit the traps fre- 
quently in order that the captives may not remain 
in agony for any length of time. 

The best and most merciful way of securing 
game of any sort is to shoot it ; but very often this 
is impossible or, at least, it is found impossible 



138 The Book of Camping 

to shoot sufficient to furnish food or clothing, or 
both, even though there may be an abundance of 
wild animals in the vicinity, and under such con- 
ditions, it becomes necessary to resort to trap- 
ping or snaring in order to provide your 
wants. 

There is an almost endless number of traps and 
snares in use, some of which are designed to cap- 
ture the game alive, while others kill the creatures 
at once. The latter are the more merciful as a 
rule and are more reliable, for even if an animal 
is caught he may manage to escape by tearing 
himself free or by gnawing off a leg, if he is not 
killed by the trap. Traps of this description are 
called deadfalls, but many forms of snares also 
kill the creatures which are caught by them and 
while there is a great variety of each it is not nec- 
essary to know how to make and set them all and 
a knowledge of how to prepare and set a few of 
the more useful and important snares and traps 
will serve all requirements. 

Deadfalls are traps in which a heavy weight, 
usually a stone or log, is arranged to fall upon 
the back or head of any animal which springs the 
trap. They may be used with equal success for 
the smallest of creatures or for the largest and 



How to Trap and Why 139 

professional trappers use them for everything 
from bears to weasels. 

There are several ways of constructing dead- 
falls, but they are nearly all very simple and 
three of the simplest are illustrated in Figs. 1 to 5. 
The first is formed of a log with a smooth space 
cut upon its upper surface and with a slight rise 
or ridge in the centre as shown at A, Another 
similar log B is placed directly above the first and 
is held from moving sideways by the guide stakes 
CC driven firmly into the earth. Between the 
two a trigger is arranged as illustrated at D and 
to this the bait is attached as shown. In order 
to compel the animal to pass between the two logs 
to reach the bait a little enclosure of sticks is built 
around the bait on the trigger as shown at E, 

Another simple form of trigger which may be 
used with the deadfall is shown in detail in Fig. 
2 A and the well known ^'Figure Four" may also 
be used, as shown in Fig. 2. Oftentimes dead- 
falls are set without bait, and if you can locate a 
path or. runway used by game, or the lair or den 
of animals you wish to secure, a trap of this sort 
will prove very successful. In Figs. 4 and 5 two 
forms of deadfalls of this type are illustrated, 
either one of which will be found very satisfac- 



140 The Book of Camping 

tory, for the least touch on the triggers A A, will 
dislodge the upper log and cause it to fall upon 
the back or head of the passing animal. 

In setting traps with bait, place them near the 
lair of the creatures or else in some sheltered spot, 
such as the corner of a fence or wall, beside an 
old stump, log or fallen tree, or close to a ledge or 
a rock, for a trap set in plain view in the open 
will often arouse the suspicions of wild animals 
and they will give it a wide berth. 

For bait, use something of which the animals 
are very fond, such as an ear of corn or fresh 
vegetables for rodents, and turkey, chicken or 
birds' heads for carnivorous animals. 

Very different from the deadfalls are the traps 
designed to capture animals alive. The best of 
these is the Box Trap, two forms of which are 
illustrated in Figs. 6, 7, In either case the trap 
itself consists of a box-like affair with the top 
and one end fastened together and hinged, or 
pivoted, to the sides. In the form shown in 
Fig. 6 the trigger consists of a short stick project- 
ing through the top of the trap and fitting loosely 
in the hole, and to the lower end of this the bait 
is fastened. Across the top of the box is a cleat 
or "bridge" which should be raised a short dis- 




^y.^ 



141 



142 The Book of Camping 

tance above the trap. To the hinged portion of 
the top a short stick is attached by means of a 
cord as shown, and to set the trap this is placed 
over the raised cleat and the free end is then 
caught under the notch in the upper end of the 
trigger. The least motion of the trigger will 
spring the trap. In the form of box-trap shown 
in Fig. 7 a different type of trigger is used, but 
which is just as simple as the first. To the 
spindle A bait is fastened and the other end is 
then slipped through the hole at C. The trigger 
B is fastened at its centre to a string led over the 
high notched end of the trap D and the string 
should be of such a length that when the top of 
the trap is raised as shown the trigger B may be 
caught between the notch in the spindle and the 
nick in the back of the trap as illustrated. 

These are both first rate traps for rabbits, 
squirrels and small animals, as well as for birds ; 
especially grouse, quail and other ground-loving 
species. Moreover, creatures caught in these 
traps are uninjured and for that reason they are 
the best form of traps for catching animals or 
birds for pets. It is advisable, however, to have 
one end, or a portion, of the side or bottom, of the 
trap, made of netting so the interior is visible, 




^"J.IZ 



143 



144 The Book of Camping 

for skunks and other unwelcome surprises are 
often found within the sprung trap and it's just 
as well to be on the safe side and know just what 
youVe caught before opening the trap. 

Another form of trap which captures its vic- 
tims alive and unharmed is the ''Hen-coop Trap" 
shown in Fig. 8, This is a particularly good 
trap for grouse, quail, pigeons, etc., and will do 
very well for small animals. Moreover, it is 
easily and quickly made from materials to be 
found anywhere in the woods. The trap consists 
of a box constructed of sticks laid crosswise or 
" log-cabin " fashion and tied together with bark, 
grass, withes, roots or cord or, if preferred, it may 
be made of sticks or lathes nailed together, or a 
discarded wooden box may be used. The trap is 
set by some form of simple trigger, such as the 
Figure Four, of the triggers illustrated for dead- 
falls, while, if intended for birds, the trigger 
shown in Fig. 8 is preferable. 

This consists of two forked sticks of unequal 
length, A, By and a piece of pliable withe or flex- 
ible stick, C. The latter is bent in a semicircle 
a little smaller than the diameter of the coop and 
the ends are prevented from springing apart by 
means of two sticks or pegs driven into the 



How to Trap and Why 145 

ground just within the coop as shown at D D, 
The longest of the forked sticks is placed upright 
outside of the bent withe and with the forked 
end up. Then the shorter stick is placed in the 
position shown, with one end of its fork resting 
in the fork A and with its tip supporting the coop, 
while the lower end is slipped inside of the withe. 
The weight of the coop upon the fork forces the 
lower end against the withe and hence the coop 
cannot fall; but the weight of a bird upon the 
withe releases the trigger and allows the coop to 
drop. 

Of all forms of traps the most widely used, the 
most deadly and the most cruel are the steel traps 
and unless you trap for a livelihood or are com- 
pelled to trap for food or garments, or are trying 
to destroy some dangerous or obnoxious creature, 
you should never use this form of trap. Nearly 
all wild creatures are suspicious of steel traps and 
if they are set where they can be seen, animals 
will seldom go near them. As a rule, it is neces- 
sary to cover steel traps with sand, earth or leaves 
and they should always be rubbed with grease or 
smoked over a fire in order to destroy all traces of 
human scent. A good method is to wash the traps 
in weak lye or wood ashes and water and then 



146 The Book of Camping 

rub them with chicken or other animal fat. After 
being washed, the traps should never be handled 
with bare hands and gloves or mittens should 
always be worn when setting the traps, as there 
is nothing which so fills wild creatures with 
fear and suspicion as the smell of human beings. 
Very often, ashes or charred wood, manure or 
some other strong scented material, if scattered 
about the trap, will serve to destroy all the odour 
of man and will also attract the animals. And 
don't forget that the chain must be washed and 
concealed as well as the trap itself. When set- 
ting a steel trap for mink, muskrats or other 
water-loving animals the best plan is to attach 
the trap chain to a stout wire. One end of this 
should be fastened to a heavy stone, or a stake, 
in the bottom of the brook or pond, and the other 
end should be attached to some object on shore. 
Then, when an animal is caught, his struggles 
will cause the chain to run down the wire and 
the creature will be drowned. 

Meat, chicken or turkey heads, offal, small ani- 
mals or birds, fish heads, etc., are all good bait 
for steel traps or deadfalls, but with a steel trap 
the bait should never be placed on the trap itself. 
Instead, it should be hung over the trap so that the 



How to Trap and Why 147 

animal, in striving to reach the bait, will step upon 
the trap. When setting traps for otter, musk- 
rat or mink it is a good plan to place the traps 
on stones or logs close to the edge of the water, or 
to place them in the water itself near shore, if 
thus placed and if a fowl's head is suspended 
above the trap, mink and otter may often be taken 
when all other means fail. 

Another important matter when using steel 
traps, — or for that matter any form of trap for 
carnivorous animal, — is to make a "scent" or 
trail. This is done by attaching a piece of 
bloody meat or a freshly-severed head to the end 
of a stick, and after smearing it with fish oil, 
anise or some other strong oil, it should be dragged 
over the ground in various directions from the 
trap. This scent attracts the animals in the vicin- 
ity and lures them to the trap. 

Sometimes, when there is a regular animal run- 
way or trail, a steel trap may be set without bait 
of any sort, the trap and chain being carefully 
concealed by leaves, etc. Oftentimes, too, ani- 
mals may be induced to step upon the hidden trap 
by building a little enclosure behind it, as de- 
scribed for deadfalls, and placing the bait within 
the pen so that any animal must step upon the 



148 The Book of Camping 

trap in order to reach the bait. When steel traps 
are set for large animals they never should be 
chained to an immovable object, but should be 
fastened to a heavy log or stick known as a 
"drag." If attached to a tree or stump the cap- 
tive will frequently break loose by pulling his leg 
from the trap or by biting or gnawing it off. The 
drag will allow the captured creature to move 
about, but will prevent him from travelling rap- 
idly or far and will make a plain, easily followed 
trail. But it will not afford enough resistance to 
enable the creature to tear his limb free. 

Very often the camper may find himself in a 
district where game is scarce or lacking, but there 
is scarcely any locality where frogs, turtles and 
other edible forms of wild life do not occur and 
the camper should know how to avail himself of 
these. Frogs may usually be obtained by shoot- 
ing with a rifle, pistol or bow and arrow or by 
spearing, but turtles are more difficult to capture 
and in order to secure enough for a meal one must 
trap them. It is a very easy matter to trap turtles 
and the traps used are most simple in construc- 
tion. In Figs. 9,10 two forms of turtle traps are 
shown. The better of the two is probably that 
illustrated in Fig, 9. This consists of a box with 



How to Trap and Why 149 

perforated sides and with the top formed of two 
hinged or pivoted pieces, A. A, so arranged that 
they can tip down, but are prevented from tipping 
up by the cleats B.B, and which are held in their 
normal position by the weights C.C. When the 
trap is ready it should be weighed with stones 
placed within and should be sunk to the bottom 
of the water at such a depth that an inch or two 
of its top projects above the surface. 

When a turtle crawls up on the box his weight 
tips down the pivoted trap door and the turtle 
slides into the trap. The weights C.C then pull 
the door into horizontal position and the trap 
becomes ready for the next turtle. The only care 
necessary is to get the weights just heavy enough 
to swing the door shut for if too heavy the turtles' 
weight will not tip the door and if too light the 
doors will not swing back quickly and the turtles 
in the trap may crawl out before the door shuts. 
No bait is required for the trap as the turtles are 
attracted to it merely as a good spot on which to 
sun themselves. It is not unusual to catch frogs 
as well as turtles with this trap and fifty turtles 
in a day is not a remarkably big catch. 

The other form of turtle trap (Fig. 10) operates 
on a very different principle. This trap consists 



150 The Book of Camping 

of a perforated box fitted with a swinging door 
at one or both ends and so arranged that they 
swing inwards but not outwards, as shown. A 
piece of iron or lead should be attached to the 
lower edges of the doors to prevent them from 
floating open or swinging to and fro, and an open- 
ing of about half an inch should be left between 
the bottom of the door and the bottom of the trap. 
Weights should be fastened inside to sink the trap 
and a few pieces of meat, fish or some similar 
bait should also be placed within and the whole 
sunk to the bottom of the water. The turtles will 
smell the bait, and in trying to reach it, will push 
in the doors which they cannot open from the 
inside. 

This is a particularly good trap for snapping 
turtles and terrapin, but is not so good for small 
turtles as the one already described. 

Moreover, you must visit and examine this trap 
frequently if set under water as otherwise the 
captives will drown, but by placing it in shallow 
water with an inch or so of the top above the 
surface, this will be avoided. Mink, muskrats, 
frogs, fish and even alligators are often captured 
accidentally in this form of trap. 

For many purposes snares are often more use- 



How to Trap and Why 151 

ful than traps and are more quickly and more 
easily made. Broadly speaking, all snares con- 
sist of slipnooses of wire, cord, horsehair or other 
material so arranged as to catch the feet or neck 
of any creature which enters them. 

There is, however, a vast number of snares of 
distinct styles, forms and types, each adapted to 
a certain use or condition, although many of them 
may be used in a variety of places and for various 
kinds of game. In the north, snares are never 
used for taking large animals, but in many parts 
of the tropics they are made of rope or strong vines 
and are successfully employed in taking lions, 
tigers and the largest and most powerful of 
beasts. 

To the camper, snares are of the greatest value 
for catching birds, especially ground-feeding 
species, such as partridge, quail, grouse, etc., as 
well as the smaller manmials, such as rabbits and 
squirrels. The simplest form of snare consists 
of a noose of fine wire, cord or horsehair, 
stretched in an opening, or spread upon the 
ground, in such a way that it is likely to entangle 
the feet or head of any bird or mammal walking 
over or through it. Two such snares are shown 
in Figs, 15 and 16, but an equally simple form, 



152 The Book of Camping 

and a much more efficient type, is that illustrated 
in Fig, 11, In Fig. 11 A, the noose is attached 
to a pole lashed loosely to a tree in such a manner 
that the heavier or butt end of the pole will pull 
the lighter end into the air when released. In 
Fig, 11 B a, similar snare is shown, but in this 
case a flexible sapling is bent over to take the place 
of the pole. In both of these snares the noose is 
held in place and the pole is prevented from 
swinging, or the sapling from springing up, by 
catching the cord above the noose in a notch on a 
stake, or stick in the earth. When any creature 
pokes its head into the noose its struggles release 
the cord and the sapling, or balanced pole, jerks 
the captive into the air, breaking its neck or chok- 
ing it to death. Of course there would be little 
chance of any creature entering the noose if it was 
placed in this way in the open, and in order to 
insure game entering the noose, the snares must 
either be baited or else placed in a runway and 
must be so arranged that a creature must enter 
the noose to secure the bait or to follow its accus- 
tomed path. Such an arrangement is shown in 
Fig, 12, in which the noose is adjusted in a little 
opening, or gate, in a wall of twigs or brush which 
may be placed across a runway, or may be cal -ied 







153 



154 The Book of Camping 

around as a circular enclosure in which bait is 
placed. 

In the illustration, the spring pole is held down 
by a simple trigger consisting of a short piece of 
wood held in notches between two upright stakes. 
This form of snare is known as a ''twitch up'' ; 
another form of which is shown in Fig. 13. In 
this case the noose is spread around the top of a 
circle of sticks and the trigger used is the ''Figure 
Four" already described. In Fig. 14 still another 
form is shown in which the noose is spread around 
a frame made of a flexible stick. This is spe- 
cially designed to catch small birds and, within 
the oval, grain is scattered, and the birds, by 
alighting on the frame, dislodge the trigger and 
are snared by the noose as it flies into the air. 
The more simple form shown in Fig. 15 is merely 
a cord stretched between two stakes and with in- 
dividual snares attached to it. In this case no 
twitch-up is used, the success of the snare depend- 
ing upon birds entangling their feet in the nooses 
as they hop about picking up the scattered bait. 

Another snare without a twitch-up is shown in 
Fig. 16 and which is very useful for catching 
rabbits, grouse, quail, etc. The noose is spread 
between the sides of a little arch, made of a bent 



How to Trap and Why 155 

twig, which forms the gate to a fence of sticks 
which is usually erected in a runway. But the 
same method may be followed with a wall enclos- 
ing a little space in which bait is scattered. In 
this case a number of openings should be left in 
the fence and in each of these a snare should be 
set. 

These are but a few of the more common and 
practical forms of snares but they will serve all 
ordinary requirements for the camper who may 
be compelled to capture birds or mammals for 
many purposes. 

Even if you are not obliged to use the skins 
of animals for garments or footwear they may 
often be used to good advantage when camping 
out and every camper should learn how to tan 
hides and skins and how to make moccasins. 

Of course, if you merely wish to preserve the 
skins of any creatures you catch or kill, it is only 
necessary to skin the animals and dry the hides 
in the shade, for they can be sent to a tannery 
to be tanned and made into rugs, etc., when you 
return to the city. But it is much more satis- 
factory to tan your own skins, and by so doing 
you will have added to your knowledge of wood- 
craft, for woodcraft in its broadest sense should 



156 The Book of Camping 

always include the ability to wrest a livelihood, 
and make oneself comfortable, in the woods. 

For ordinary use the easiest and simplest way 
to skin any animal is to cut a straight line down 
the under side from chin to tail, with connecting 
incisions extending from this line to the sole of 
each of the four feet, and then peel off the skin. 
If the hide is intended for a rug or a trophy the 
feet and head should be carefully skinned and the 
claws and lips left on the hide. The skull should 
then be separated from the neck, carefully cleaned 
and scraped and dried so that, later on, it may be 
used in preparing the hide with mounted head. 
The skin should then be stretched smoothly on a 
door, board or wall, with the skin side out, — or it 
may be stretched on a frame of poles lashed to- 
gether, — and should be rubbed with a mixture of 
salt and alum, after which it should be dried in 
the shade. If the skins are valuable and are to 
be sold or used as furs they should be "cased," 
In other words, one incision should be made from 
the sole of one hind foot down the inside of the 
leg, and across the abdomen and up the other hind 
leg to the foot. The body should then be re- 
moved through this cut, turning the skin inside 
out like a glove, and the skin should be slipped 



How to Trap and Why 157 

(still inside out) over a board or shingle whittled 
down to the proper size to fit the skin snugly and 
of somewhat tapered, oblong form. After the 
hide is stretched on the board it should be hung in 
the shade to dry without anything being rubbed 
upon it. On the other hand, if you expect to tan 
your skins and wish them soft and pliable you 
should be prepared to use plenty of time and 
elbow grease, for the secret of tanning a skin soft 
is to roll, rub, beat, work and scrape it while 
drying until thoroughly soft and pliable. 

There are many different ways of tanning skins 
and every tanner has his own favourite, — and 
often secret, — ^methods and liquors, but a skin may 
be tanned by merely rubbing with brains, grease 
or butter and working and rubbing until soft. 
This is a favourite Indian method which is fol- 
lowed by smoking, but it is far easier to use chemi- 
cals of some sort. The old fashioned alum, salt 
and salt-peter solution; the improved liquor of 
salt, alum and sulphuric acid and the various ex- 
tracts of oak, sumach, mangrove, etc., are all good; 
but they all require care and time and a bulky sup- 
ply of chemicals or liquor. Quite recently I acci- 
dentally discovered an entirely new and far better 
process. This consists of simply soaking the raw, 



158 The Book of Camping 

freshly removed skin in a 10% to 15% solution 
of formaline. This will thoroughly tan a small 
deer skin in twelve hours and all fat, grease, bits 
of flesh, etc., may easily be removed after soak- 
ing. As soon as the skin turns white and leathery, 
rinse and wash it thoroughly in fresh water; let 
it drain ; scrape and pull off the bits of meat and 
grease; work the skin dry by stretching first one 
way and then another by rolling and beating, and 
you will have a beautifully soft, kid-like piece 
of leather. If you do not wish to spend the time 
and labour to work the hide dry you can let it 
dry flat and will have no difficulty in making it 
flexible by working it and pounding it afterwards. 
Even old dried skins may be tanned to perfection 
in this way if first softened by soaking in water. 
Moreover, skins tanned in this way are quite free 
from attacks by moths and other pests; they never 
become stiff or hard from wetting, and the method 
is equally good for hides with the hair on or with 
the hair removed. As a small bottle of full 
strength formaline will make enough solution to 
tan a large number of good sized skins, one may 
always go prepared to tan any hides obtained. 

If you should wish to tan skins without the hair 
on you must first remove the hair by soaking the 



How to Trap and Why 159 

fresh skins in a solution of wood ashes and water, 
or by burying them in mud for a few hours. As 
soon as the hair starts to come away, rinse the 
skins in fresh water, lay them over a log or 
rounded beam and with a smooth-edged piece of 
hardwood, or the back of a large knife, scrape off 
all the hair. Then wash and tan as described. 

Of course many skins obtained by hunting or 
trapping are useless for garments or footwear, but 
there are many others which make excellent leg- 
gings, pouches, belts and moccasins. Deer and 
woodchuck, all the carnivorous animals, and 
squirrels, have tough skins which make strong 
leather, but only the larger species furnish enough 
leather to make moccasins or garments of any 
sort, unless a number of skins are sewed together. 
If you ever find yourself in such a predicament 
that it is necessary to fashion skin garments you 
will have to use your own ingenuity and get along 
as best you may, for it is impossible to describe 
the method of making clothing from skins in a 
volume of this size. On the other hand, it is a 
very different matter to make moccasins and as 
these are the easiest and most useful of footgear 
for the woods I advise every camper to practise 
until proficient in the art of making moccasins 



i6o The Book of Camping 

for himself. It's far cheaper and more satisfac- 
tory than buying them, even if you have to pur- 
chase the leather or buckskin, and are not for- 
tunate enough to have hides obtained and tanned 
by your own hands. 

Among the Indians, every tribe had its own 
distinctive form of moccasin, but many of these 
were so similar that they were scarcely more than 
variations of a common type. To describe them 
all would require a treatise, but there are three 
distinct types which are all good and are easily 
made and each of which is best adapted to certain 
localities and purposes. For convenience these 
may be called the Algonquin Moccasin, the Sioux 
Moccasin and the Seminole Moccasin, for the 
three forms were distinctive of these tribes, al- 
though other tribes used moccasins of very similar 
appearance and construction. As these three 
nations lived in widely separated parts of the 
country, and under very different conditions, the 
three types of moccasins offer a choice of footgear 
suited to almost any portion of the United States 
and to almost any purpose, for you may be sure 
the redman, through countless ages of primitive 
life and experience, has evolved the moccasin best 
adapted to his surroundings and purposes. 



How to Trap and Why 161 

Thus the Algonquin moccasin is soft and flex- 
ible and is high cut and is specially adapted to 
use in the woods and in canoes, for trailing and 
stalking game and, if well made, is almost water- 
proof except by long immersion and is warm 
in winter or cool in summer, depending upon 
whether it is made of thin or thick hide, or of 
hide with or without hair left on it. The Sioux 
moccasin, on the other hand, is low cut with a 
stout hard sole and is just the sort of footgear one 
would expect to find among a race inhabiting the 
plains and mountains of the west, where sharp 
pebbles, sand and rough rocks necessitate a pro- 
tection for the soles of the wearer's feet, but where 
silent stalking in forests, the use of canoes and the 
necessity of waterproof moccasins are unknown. 
Very different from either of the above are the 
moccasins of the Seminoles, a tribe whose hunt- 
ing grounds and homes were the deep swamps and 
everglades of Florida ; a tribe whose journeys were 
nearly all made by dug-out canoes and where cold 
winters were unknown. To make moccasins 
which would remain dry after continual soaking 
in the Florida swamps was impossible; the only 
requisite was protection for the feet. Warmth 
was unnecessary, and, as a result, the Seminoles 



i62 The Book of Camping 

evolved moccasins of thin, soft leather; high cut 
and close fitting as a glove; in effect, an extra 
thickness of skin to guard against thorns, saw- 
grass, insect and snake bites ; but not intended to 
withstand long tramping nor to keep the feet dry. 

For the white man, however, either or all of 
these three t)^es of moccasins will be found use- 
ful. The Algonquin is very neat, it is comfort- 
able and is simple to make; the Sioux requires 
more time in making, but has the advantage of a 
thick sole to protect your feet, while the Seminole 
is made from a single piece of leather ; it may be 
made without tools of any sort, other than a knife, 
and it is the simplest of all. An Indian can make 
a pair of Seminole moccasins in less than half 
an hour, but you will find a great deal of practice 
necessary before you can make a pair readily and 
quickly and yet secure a good fit. 

To make a pair of Algonquin moccasins (Fig, 
17) select a good-sized piece of soft tough leather 
or buckskin, and from this cut two pieces of the 
form shown in Fig. 18 and two others of the form 
shown in Fig. 19. The sizes of these pieces must 
be calculated by the size of your shoe or foot, or 
by a shoe last, taking one and one-third times the 
length of your foot for the distance from A to B 



How to Trap and Why 163 

and the circumference around your foot at the 
instep for the distance from C to D. Thus if you 
stand upon the leather, the sides C and D should 
just meet, when drawn up over your instep. The 
side flaps E and F may be either long or short, 
according to whether you wish a high or low-cut 
moccasin. When the four pieces are ready you 
should cut a number of strips, or strings, from the 
leather. These may be cut from the edges of the 
hide, or a small scrap may be used by cutting 
around and around in spiral form, as shown in 
Fig. 20, At the point marked G (Fig. 19 and 
21 ) make holes with an awl and sew the two pieces 
together with a strip of leather, with tough sinew 
or with strong waxed thread. Make each stitch 
short on the tongue (19) and long in the edge 
of the other piece (21) and thus gather the edges 
in neat folds or tucks as shown in Figs. 22 and 
23. It will take some little time and several trials 
in order to learn just how long to make the stitches 
in order to have the sides of the moccasin and the 
edges of the tongue join evenly and symmetrically, 
but the only way to judge of this is to try over and 
over again and if you have to pull out the stitches 
a half dozen times don't be discouraged. In case 
the leather is stiff or very thick, the edges should 



164 The Book of Camping 

be well wet until soft and flexible and, moreover, 
if the edges are thus dampened and the tongue is 
left dry the moccasin edges will pucker readily 
without gathering the tongue. A very good 
method is to make the moccasins over wooden shoe 
lasts, for in this way a much neater job and a 
better fit may be obtained. When the tongue is 
at last sewed neatly into place cut two little notches 
in the heel end of the moccasin, as shown at H.H, 
and stitch up the back in the manner illustrated 
in Fig. 23, sewing over and over through both 
edges of the moccasin until the little tab H is 
reached. This should then be sewed tightly and 
neatly to the moccasin, as indicated in the illus- 
tration. Finally tie a leather thong at the lower 
edge of the side pieces, or, better still, pass the 
string through a hole in one edge and then around 
the back and out through a hole in the other edge. 
To make a pair of moccasins of the Seminole 
type, illustrated in Figs, 24, 25, cut two pieces of 
the shape illustrated in Fig, 26, and also two 
strings of tough leather of the form shown in 
Fig. 27. The size of the two pieces {26) must be 
determined in the same way as already described 
for the Algonquin moccasin, with the difference 
that in the present case the width should be a 




y<j?? 




i>.,* 




f,t3^ 



165 



i66 The Book of Camping 

little greater than distance around your instep. 
Make a hole at the toe A (Fig. 26) and through 
this, from the under side, insert the piece (Fig. 
27). The large triangular end of this string (B) 
will prevent the thong from pulling through and 
should be left as shown in the cut. Next, with this 
leather thong, sew over and under, as illustrated 
in Fig. 28, making holes with a small awl or 
punch and pulling the stitches tightly each time 
until neat folds or tucks are made along the seam, 
and gradually decreasing the length of the stitches 
and making the folds looser and looser as you 
proceed, until at the instep there are no folds on 
the seam. By wetting the edges near the toe and 
leaving the edges near the instep dry this method 
of gathering may easily be accomplished, but you 
will no doubt find several trials necessary before 
you are able to gather the seam in just the right 
way to form a neatly fitting moccasin with the 
seam straight and true along the top. When at 
last the two sides are properly sewed together, knot 
the thong so it cannot slip back, and let the long 
free end remain for a tie-string to wrap about the 
leg. The back and heel are next sewn up in 
exactly the same manner as described for the 
Algonquin moccasin ; but using a thong of leather 



How to Trap and Why 167 

instead of thread or sinew and leaving a long 
loose end of the thong at the top as in Fig. 24. In 
the genuine Seminole-made moccasins the heel is 
made in a different manner by gathering the 
leather in a circle but this is difficult to describe, 
and, moreover, it does not give as tight and neat 
a finish as the method recommended above. 
When the moccasin is v^orn the string C is 
wrapped about the leg and tied to the thong D 
which holds the flaps neatly in place. 

To make the Sioux moccasin (Fig. 29) you will 
need some thin tough leather as well as some very 
thick heavy, but soft, hide, such as elk skin, soft 
tanned horse hide, or, if preferred, some heavy 
rawhide. To cut the soles from this place your 
foot upon it and mark around in the form shown 
in Fig. 20 y but allowing about quarter of an inch 
larger than your foot all around. Cut this out 
and using it for a pattern cut another piece like 
it, but be sure and turn the first piece upside down 
when using it as a pattern so that the two soles 
will be opposites or right and left. In cutting 
these soles see that the hair side of the skin is the 
bottom, and in every case when making moccasins, 
this rule should be followed, unless you are using 
hide with the fur or hair on for warmth; in that 



l68 The Book of Camping 

case make the moccasins with hair on the inside. 
After the soles are ready, measure the length from 
toe to heel, add one inch over, and mark this 
length on the thin leather. Next measure from 
one side across the instep of your foot to the oppo- 
site side where your foot touches the ground and 
mark this distance on the thin leather at one end 
of the first mark and at right angles to it as 
shown in Fig. 31. From one end of this last 
line draw a curved line around the end of the 
length line and back to the cross line, as shown by 
the dotted line in Fig. 31, and cut out neatly along 
this line. Place this piece upside down on an- 
other part of the thin leather and cut out a second 
piece of the same size and form. In each of these, 
make cuts as shown by C.C and D.D, and make 
two holes close together at E.E, Fig. 32. 

These are the uppers of the moccasins and 
should be attached to the soles by stitching through 
the edges of the soles and the edges of the uppers 
in the manner shown in Fig. 33, for if the stitches 
are run straight through the thread, or sinew, will 
soon wear off. Always commence sewing at the 
heel of the sole and where one of the corners of 
the uppers join it as at G, Fig. 32, and work 
around the toe and back towards the heel on the 



How to Trap and Why 169 

other side. When the soles are sewed firmly to 
the uppers, and if the soles are rawhide or thick 
leather you will probably have to soak them in 
water to sew them, sew up the heel seams. A 
tongue of soft leather should then be fastened in 
place as shown at H, Fig. 34, The only difficul- 
ties which you may have in making these mocca- 
sins is to prevent the uppers from puckering, but 
this is readily overcome with practice. Before 
sewing up the heels, and while working at the 
moccasins, you will find that it may be more con- 
venient to turn the moccasins inside out, but they 
must be turned back before sewing up the heels. 
When the moccasins are finished a soft leather 
thong should be passed through the holes in the 
uppers (E.E, Fig. 34) to serve as a lacing. If 
high moccasins of this type are desired leg-pieces 
may be sewn onto the uppers after the moccasins 
are otherwise complete. 



CHAPTER VI 

EMERGENCY HINTS 

Accidents, Drowning. First Aid. Bandaging. Poisons 
and antidotes. Insect and snake bites. 

EVERY camper should be fully prepared 
for any emergency, for no matter how 
careful you may be, how skilled you may 
be in woodcraft, or how experienced you are in 
camping, accidents will happen and emergencies 
may arise at any time. 

The upsetting of a boat or canoe; a fire or a 
thunder storm ; a high wind ; a prowling wild ani- 
mal ; or some other cause, may bring injuries, ill- 
ness or death, while a soft spot in the earth, a 
fallen tree, a rotten log or a slippery rock, may 
result in sprains, dislocations or fractures. More 
remote than such things is the danger of snake 
bites, but the stings of many insects are fully as 
dangerous and far more troublesome. In addi- 
tion to all these, there is the ever present menace 

of a glancing axe or slipping knife and, wherever 

170 



Emergency Hints 171 

there is water, there is the risk of some one being 
drowned. 

To safeguard yourself and friends against se- 
rious or fatal results from such accidents you 
should learn how to render first aid, how to re- 
suscitate the drowned, how to cure snake and 
insect bites, and how to care for fractures, disloca- 
tions, cuts or serious injuries of any kind until 
the patient can be taken to a hospital or medical 
aid can be summoned. 

One of the first and most important things to 
learn in rendering first aid is the proper way to 
put on a bandage. Any strip of cloth, a napkin, 
towel, handkerchief, or a piece torn from a gar- 
ment, may be used as a bandage in an emer- 
gency, but oftentimes such extemporised bandages 
are far from clean, and they are never sterilised 
or antiseptic and, as a result, they may cause in- 
flammation, or even blood poisoning. It is far 
better always to be provided with regular sur- 
geons' bandages of sterilised antiseptic gauze of 
assorted widths. The ideal bandage for extensive 
or serious injuries is, however, the Esmach tri- 
angular bandage, for this is far easier to apply 
than any other form. Any one can make a band- 
age of this sort by cutting a piece of cloth 40 



172 The Book of Camping 

inches square into two triangular halves, but the 
prepared bandage is better and if a home-made 
bandage is used it should be scrupulously clean 
and should be disinfected with carbolic acid, or 
some similar solution, and kept hermetically 
sealed until wanted for use. 

The regulation bandages, as furnished to the 
army and navy, have printed directions with dia- 
grams illustrating their use, stamped in indelible 
ink and every camper should study these until he 
has memorised the methods of using the bandages 
for any wound or injury that may occur. These 
triangular bandages may be used open for injuries 
to the head, etc., or they may be folded to use as 
slings or rolled, folded and arranged to suit the 
needs of any part of the limbs or body requiring 
a bandage. When thus folded the bandage is of 
the greatest value in holding splints or dressings 
in place, for slings, for tourniquets, etc. 

When fastening a bandage of any sort, either 
use a strong safety pin, or else tear down the ends 
a short distance and tie the strips with square or 
reef knots. Never use a bow knot, slip-knot or 
"granny." Such knots are liable to loosen or be- 
come unfastened accidentally. 

In making a sling, fold the bandage or a large 



Emergency Hints 173 

piece of strong cloth as in Fig. 1. Place one end 
over the shoulder of the injured side and let the 
free end hang down. Then carefully bend the 
arm at right angles at the elbow, — with the thumb 
uppermost, — draw the loose end of the sling up 
outside of the arm and over the opposite shoulder 
and fasten it to the first end {Fig. 2 A). 

Never attempt to bend an injured arm and place 
it in a sling already tied. If a broad sling is 
required, as in the case of an injury to the upper 
arm, make the cloth wide enough to cover the fore- 
arm and more. Then place the end of sling 
across the shoulder opposite the injury, bend the 
injured arm carefully at elbow, place it across 
breast with palm of hand inward and thumb up, 
bring the end of sling up across forearm, pass it 
over shoulder on the injured side and fasten ends 
securely behind the neck. Then draw the point 
of the bandage forward over the elbow and pin it 
in place. This is the sort of sling which should 
be used for any injury to the upper arm, a broken 
collar bone, a dislocated elbow or shoulder or a 
sprained wrist or elbow {Fig. 2 B). 

Injuries to the head are often very difficult to 
bandage properly, but with a large triangular 
bandage there should be little trouble. If the 



174 The Book of Camping 

wound is large, the bandage should be used open 
and not folded, but one edge should be turned on 
itself to form a thick edge or hem. Place the 
bandage with the centre of this folded edge over 
forehead, and with the edge in line with the eye- 
brows, so that the point of the bandage hangs over 
the back of the neck. Then gather both ends 
around the head above the ears with the point un- 
derneath. Cross the ends and bring them around 
to the front of head and tie securely over the fore- 
head. Then pull the point down so the whole 
fits the head like a cap and turn the point up 
over the ends and pin it in position as shown in 
Fig, 3. 

For small wounds or minor injuries to the head, 
ears or eyes, the bandage should be folded as 
shown in Fig. 1, and should be applied as illus- 
trated in Fig. 4. For shoulder wounds, place the 
border of the bandage downwards over the middle 
of arm with the point on the upper surface of the 
shoulder, or beside the neck, and bring the two 
ends around the arm, crossing them on the inside 
and tying on the outer side. Then bend the fore- 
arm at elbow and place it in a sling as already de- 
scribed. Finally, draw the point of the bandage 
under and around the sling where it passes around 




^/♦./3 



176 The Book of Camping 

the neck on the injured side and pin in position 
as shown in Fig, 5. 

Wounds or any injuries to the hands are com- 
paratively easy to dress or bandage and for such 
purposes there are two good ways of using the tri- 
angular bandage, — ^whether the entire hand is to 
be covered or whether only a portion requires 
bandaging. For a bandage for the entire hand, 
the triangular cloth should be spread out, the hand 
placed palm down upon it, with the fingers toward 
the point of the triangle, and with the wrist in 
the centre of the lower border. Then turn the 
point over, back and down over the wrist (Fig, 6), 
and bring the ends around the wrist and over the 
point (Fig. 7). Cross the ends, bring them back 
and tie over the point and finally draw the point 
up so that the bandage fits the hand snugly {Fig, 
8). 

Where it is only required to cover the fingers, 
or a portion of the hand, fold the bandage to the 
right width and place the centre over the wound 
with a poultice, compress or dressing beneath it; 
bring the ends around, cross them obliquely, 
bring them around the wrist and tie. Fig, 9, 

Where the hip or thigh is injured, two bandages 
are used, one of which is applied in a similar 



Emergency Hints 177 

manner as described for the shoulder. First fold 
one bandage until narrow and use this like a belt 
around the waist, with the knot on the side oppo- 
site to the injury. Then place the triangular 
bandage over the wounded hip, with the lower edge 
on the middle of the thigh, and with the point up, 
pass the ends around thigh and cross and tie them 
on the outside. Finally, pass the point under 
the girdle, bring it down and secure with a pin. 
Fig. 10, 

In case the leg is injured below the hip and 
above the foot the bandage is folded and used by 
passing around the limb several times and is then 
tied on the side opposite to the injury. 

For bandaging the foot the triangle should be 
opened out, and the foot rested upon it, with the 
toes towards the point. The point should then 
be carried over the instep, both ends are brought 
forward and over the point, crossing behind and 
catching the lower border of the bandage, and are 
then brought forward again and tied in front of 
the ankle. The point is then brought down over 
the knot and pinned (Fig. 11), Very often a 
wound may bleed so freely that a tourniquet is 
required to prevent the patient from bleeding to 
death. A tourniquet is merely a cord, band, or 



178 The Book of Camping 

strip of cloth, bound tightly around a limb to stop 
the flow of blood by compressing the veins or 
arteries, and it should always be applied above the 
wound and at some spot where the arteries are 
near the surface. Such places are the knee, the 
armpit, above the elbow, the wrist, the side of the 
neck and the groin. Usually a folded rag or 
handkerchief placed around a limb, and twisted 
tightly by means of a stick or rod, will serve every 
purpose, but in severe cases a pebble, lump of 
clay, wad of cloth or leaves, a bit of wood or even 
a nut should be inserted under the tourniquet in 
order to press upon the arteries directly. Two 
methods of applying tourniquets are illustrated in 
Figs, 12 and 13. The former showing how to 
apply a tourniquet for a wound above the elbow 
and the other how to use one for a wound below 
the elbow. 

In case a cut or injury is received in the arm 
or hand the wounded man should hold the limb 
above the head as this will decrease the flow of 
blood until a tourniquet is applied. So, too, in 
case a leg or foot is injured the limb should be 
kept higher than the head if possible and should 
always be elevated until a tourniquet is applied. 

Fractured hones should be bound with splints, 



Emergency Hints 179 

which are light strong pieces of stick or wood, 
fastened in place by binding with a rag, bandage, 
cord or handkerchief. 

Sprains should be attended to at once as other- 
wise very serious results may follow. Raise the 
injured limb, support it carefully, don't move the 
joint, and apply luke warm lotions or poultices. 
As soon as inflammation ceases apply liniments, 
spray parts alternately with lukewarm and cold 
water, or apply hot and cold compresses in turn, 
and bandage tightly. 

Treat dislocations in the same way until med- 
ical aid can be secured, for unless you are skilled 
you will do more harm than good by attempting 
to pull a dislocated joint into place. However, 
if there must be much delay in securing a doctor 
you may be obliged to pull the joint into position. 
Then bandage with compresses as for a sprain 
until inflammation ceases. 

Burns and scalds should be kept covered from 
the air and for this purpose flour and oil, grease 
and flour, limewater and oil, cooking soda and 
oil or grease, and similar compounds, should 
be applied. Never break the blister caused by a 
burn or scald and keep them well covered with 
soft lint held in place by a bandage. 



i8o The Book of Camping 

Severe bruises or contusions are best treated by 
applying hot water compresses until inflammation 
subsides, after which they may be poulticed with 
alcohol, vinegar and water, arnica or any good 
liniment. 

Shocks of any kind in which the patient faints 
or becomes helpless, pale or weak, should be 
treated by placing the patient on his back with 
head and shoulders slightly raised and clothing 
loosened about neck and waist. Give brandy and 
water, whisky and water, or aromatic spirits of 
ammonia and water, every two minutes in small 
doses. Large doses of stimulants should never 
be given under such conditions. Apply warm or 
hot applicants to limbs and pit of stomach, rub 
limbs briskly and wrap patient in warm blankets. 
As soon as the patient recovers full consciousness 
give strong hot soup or coffee. 

Sunstroke is quite a different matter from ordi- 
nary shock or fainting spells. First take patient 
into the shade and place in a recumbent attitude 
with elevated head and shoulders. Loosen clothes 
about neck and body and apply ice, cold wet 
cloths or ice water to head and nape of neck and 
change frequently. Drench head, spine and chest 
with cold water, pouring it on from a height of 



Emergency Hints 18 1 

two feet or more. Fan patient briskly and apply 
mustard to limbs and sides and administer small 
doses of stimulants. 

If a person is overcome with gas, charcoal 
fumes, smoke or, is in other words, asphyxiated, 
the face becomes livid and the condition may 
easily be mistaken for actual death. The first 
thing to do under such conditions is to place the 
patient with head raised where there is an abund- 
ance of fresh clear air. Remove the clothing and 
drench body with cold water. Then apply fumes 
of ammonia or smelling salts to nostrils; sponge 
body and face with vinegar and water and rub 
briskly. In severe cases you may be obliged to 
resort to artificial respiration as directed for reviv- 
ing the apparently drowned. 

Frostbites and frozen fingers, toes, ears or 
limbs are common in the North during winter, 
and every camper should know how to treat such 
cases. Use friction on the affected parts; first 
rubbing with snow and then with cold water, until 
the frost is removed, which will be indicated by 
the dead-white frozen flesh resuming its pink tint 
and by returning sensation. As soon as this 
occurs, administer brandy or whiskey and water 
in small quantities and keep patient in motion 



i82 The Book of Camping 

and exercising the parts which have been frozen. 
If the patient is insensible from exposure, or is 
apparently dead, the body should be stripped, 
covered with snow or ice, and placed in cold water. 
When the body is thawed out, place it in a dry, but 
cold, bed and rub hard under cover. Don't be 
discouraged, but continue using friction for 
hours. If signs of life appear, give small injec- 
tions of camphor and water or place a few drops 
of strong spirits on the tongue. Then rub body 
with spirits and water, gradually increasing the 
spirits until clear spirits are used. Then give 
hot coffee, hot tea, or brandy and water. 

Wherever there is a lake, pond, stream or salt 
water there is always the danger of drowning, for 
even the best swimmer may be overcome by 
cramps, cold or exhaustion, or in an upset of a 
canoe or boat, some blow or injury may be re- 
ceived by which the inmates lose consciousness 
and are unable to save themselves. 

Every one, whether a camper or not, should 
know how to revive, or, at least, try to revive, the 
apparently drowned, for it is knowledge which 
will never come amiss and may save valuable lives 
at any time. 

The first thing to be done,— unless the weather 



Emergency Hints 183 

is very severe and there is danger of freezing, — is 
to commence your efforts as near the spot where 
the body is taken from the water as is possible, and 
not, as is sometimes done, wait until the victim has 
been carried to some house or other distant spot. 
Expose the face to a free current of air at once, 
wipe the mouth and nose dry, loosen or strip off 
garments from chest and waist, and give two or 
three quick, resounding slaps with the open hand 
on stomach and chest. If the patient has lost 
consciousness for only a few minutes, this will 
often be sufficient to revive him. If, however, 
there is no sign of his coming to, proceed as fol- 
lows : 

If jaws are clenched, separate them and keep 
mouth open by a bit of wood or cork between 
the teeth, and if you cannot pry jaws apart, don't 
hesitate to knock out a few front teeth to accom- 
plish your purpose, for teeth do not count, as com- 
pared to life. Turn the patient on his face, with 
a bundle of clothes, a log, barrel, timber or a per- 
son's knee beneath his stomach, and press steadily 
and heavily upon the back for half a minute, 
or as long as liquids or water flow from the 
mouth. 

Then clear mouth and throat of mucus by a 



184 The Book of Camping 

rag or handkerchief wrapped around your finger, 
and turn the body on its back, with a roll of cloth- 
ing or some other object underneath, so as to raise 
the stomach slightly. If there is another person 
present, have him hold the tip of the patient's 
tongue out of one corner of the mouth, and, with 
his other hand, let him grasp both the patient's 
wrists and keep the arms stretched above the 
head. 

If alone, try to tie the loose-hanging tongue of 
your patient with the tip of your handkerchief, or 
any other cord or rag, so it will not fall back and 
close the windpipe. Kneel astride the body, 
or beside it, and place your hands on the lower 
part of the chest, with the balls of your thumbs 
resting on either side of the pit of stomach, and 
your fingers resting between the short ribs, so as 
to grasp the waist. Then, using your knees as a 
pivot, throw your weight forward on your hands, 
at the same time squeezing the waist as if you 
intended to force the contents of the chest up 
through the mouth. Deepen the pressure steadily 
while you count slowly one, two, three, and then 
let go suddenly with a final push which will spring 
you back to your kneeling position. Remain sta- 
tionary while again counting one, two, three, and 



Emergency Hints 185 

then repeat the operation as before, but gradually 
increasing the speed from four or five to fifteen 
times a minute, and keep up the bellows-like 
movements with as near the same regularity as 
occurs in the natural motion of breathing as is 
possible. 

If, at the end of three or four minutes, breath- 
ing does not commence, then, without ceasing the 
movements, turn the patient on his stomach, roll- 
ing the body in the opposite direction from that in 
which it was first turned, and continue artificial 
respiration for from one to four hours, or until 
the patient breathes or all hope is abandoned. 

Even after breathing commences, it is best to 
continue artificial motion for a few minutes. 
Then rub and dry with all the friction at your 
command, and, for that matter, if there is some 
one to help, you should have kept him rubbing the 
patient's limbs and body from the first. 

Rub the limbs upward towards the body, and 
continue until long after natural respiration is 
restored. Then apply hot flannels to stomach and 
armpits, and use hot water bottles, heated bricks, 
and every other means to maintain artificial heat 
until the patient has regained vitality. 

When breathing is fully restored, the patient 



i86 The Book of Camping 

should be placed in a warm bed with abundance 
of fresh air, and should be given perfect rest and 
allowed to sleep as long as possible. During the 
first hour after the patient is revived, a little 
brandy and water, or other stimulants, should be 
administered every ten or fifteen minutes. 

The only real danger, after respiration is re- 
stored, is in the liability of pneumonia or conges- 
tion of the lungs, and the patient should be care- 
fully watched and, in case any difficulty in breath- 
ing develops, apply a mustard plaster on chest 
and assist with artificial respiration. 

Never attempt to keep a resuscitated person 
from sleeping, for perfect rest is imperative and 
death may result if at least 48 hours' rest is not 
maintained. 

Finally, let me caution you never to abandon 
hope in trying to revive a drowned person unless 
he has been under water over thirty minutes, or 
until you are convinced there is no possible hope. 
Four hours' work is sometimes required to revive 
drowned persons, and cases are on record where 
people who have been under water for 25 minutes 
have been revived and have recovered with no ill 
effects. No amount of work is too great when a 
human life is at stake, and it often happens that 



Emergency Hints 187 

efforts are abandoned after a few minutes, when, 
by continuing, the life of the patient might be 
saved. The only way of knowing if all hope must 
be given up, is by some test, — such as burning 
the skin, to see if a blister forms, by cutting a 
small vein, to see if blood flows, etc., and even 
these tests often fail. But if, after three or four 
hours steady work, there is no sign of returning 
breath, it is pretty conclusive evidence that resus- 
citation is impossible. 

Don't imagine that you can commence to revive 
a drowned person and can do it properly after 
reading a description. Get some friend to let you 
practise on him, and let him practise on you, until 
you master each motion and operation perfectly, 
or, better still, ask some life guard or other expert 
to teach you the necessary motions, until you are 
proficient. 

In case of a snake bite, the best method to fol- 
low is to bind a tourniquet above the wound, make 
an incision at the spot where the fangs entered, 
suck the wound sharply, and rub in crystals of 
permanganate of potash, which should always be 
part of your equipment in a country where venom- 
ous snakes occur. After this is done, bandage 
the wound with a compress of cold water, flaxseed 



i88 The Book of Camping 

meal or raw steak, meat, or even bread dough, and 
keep the wound open until inflammation and 
swelling cease. Also give frequent small doses 
of brandy or whiskey and keep patient moving. 
Large doses of liquor only add to the effects of 
the poison and many a man, bitten by a snake, has 
succumbed to the whiskey and not to the snake 
poison. Also, give strong hot coffee until drowsi- 
ness and weakness have passed off. After swell- 
ing and inflammation have disappeared from the 
bite and its vicinity, apply healing ointments and 
disinfectants to the wound, exactly as for any 
other cut. 

For relieving the pain or itching of insect bites 
or stings, ammonia is excellent, but the best rem- 
edy of all is 5 % formaline solution. This smarts 
outrageously for a few moments, but it relieves 
and cures, which is the main thing. Moreover, 
formaline of this strength is a powerful germicide 
and disinfectant, and I have used it with great 
success on boils, sores, ulcers, bites, cuts and other 
wounds. Always carry some formaline with you 
and you'll find it useful in a hundred ways. 

Iodine, too, is excellent for insect bites, as well 
as for boils, bruises, small cuts and sores, while 
permanganate of potash in solution is very good 



Emergency Hints 189 

for insect bites which have become inflamed and 
swollen. 

In the woods, there is not much danger of 
poisoning from acids, etc., but there is always the 
danger of poisoning by poisonous plants. For 
the latter, use a weak solution of creosote or for- 
maline; paint with iodine or apply some healing 
ointment, such as mercurial or zinc ointment, if 
the poisoned area is extensive and raw. The 
main thing to be avoided is breaking the tiny 
blisters which form and thus spreading the poison, 
and any ointment or dressing which will dry up 
the blisters and protect the skin is excellent. 
Cooking soda is also good. For other poisons, 
use the following antidotes. 

First of all administer the antidote and then 
produce vomiting. It's a mistake to try to pro- 
duce vomiting first, for the patient may succumb 
to the effects of the poison while you are doing 
this, or the poison may paralyse the stomach or 
irritate it until vomiting is impossible. The best 
emetic is mustard and water in the proportion 
of a tablespoon of mustard in a cup of water. A 
spoonful or two of salt in water is good, and if 
none of these are available thrust a finger down 
the throat or tickle the palate with a feather or 



IQO The Book of Camping 

straw. As soon as vomiting has taken place, give 
plentifully of warm water, soap and water or oil, 
to keep up the nausea until all the contents are 
expelled from the stomach. 

For Strong Acids. — Give common chalk; oil; soap suds; 
soda, or any common harmless alkali. 

For Arsenic, Paris Green and Similar Arsenical Com- 
pounds. — Magnesia; milk; raw eggs; powdered char- 
coal; oil, or limewater. 

For Prussic Acid. — Cold affusion; brandy and ammonia, 
or powerful heart stimulants of any sort. 

For Opium, Morphine, Cocaine, etc. — Keep patient mov- 
ing; give strong coffee; slap with hands or switches; 
sting with nettles; rub with mustard, etc. 

Almost as important as knowing how to care for 
sick or injured persons is the knowledge of how 
to carry or move them. There are many ways of 
doing this, depending largely upon the extent or 
seriousness of the injuries, the size or weight of 
the victim, the distance he is to be carried, and 
the conveniences at hand. 

In the first place, never carry a patient face 
down by arms and legs. 

Never carry an injured person on a loose blan- 
ket, clothing, curtain or similar object, as a corner 



Emergency Hints 191 

may slip or the fabric may tear and drop the 
patient. 

Never carry a patient in a stretcher upon one's 
shoulders, but always by the hands or straps over 
shoulders. 

In using a litter or stretcher, care should be 
taken to have it strong enough to bear the patient's 
weight safely. A door, shutter, blind or ham- 
mock may be used as a stretcher, or one may be 
improvised from a strong overcoat by turning 
sleeves inside out, buttoning the coat over the 
sleeves, and passing a pole through each sleeve. 
In the woods, a stretcher may easily be made by 
using branches tied or lashed together with vines, 
roots, bark or twisted handkerchiefs and then 
covered with branches, leaves, grass or ferns. 
When a litter is carried by two persons, they 
should be careful not to keep in step, but the one 
in front should start with the right foot and the 
rear bearer with the left foot. In case the two are 
of unequal height, the taller should be at the 
patient's head. Carry the patient feet first, except 
in going up stairs or ascending a steep hill, when 
the head should go first. In case of a broken or 
injured thigh or leg, this rule should be reversed. 



192 The Book of Camping 

for the object is to prevent an undue flow of blood 
to the injured part, which should, therefore, be 
kept higher than the rest of the body. 

If one is alone with an injured comrade or a 
stretcher is not available, there are several 
methods of carrying the patient with little pain 
and with slight effort on his part. If the victim is 
conscious and is able to move, he should place one 
arm over your shoulder, so that his armpit rests 
on your shoulder, with the arm itself around your 
neck and over the opposite shoulder. Then, with 
your hand on that side, grasp his wrist and pass 
your other arm around his waist, as shown in 
Fig. 14, Another method is to carry the injured 
person "Pick-a-Back." This is a good method 
for children or people of light weight. Still an- 
other way, when there are two or more persons 
present, is to carry the injured man by the "four- 
handed chair" method, so well known to school 
children, or the "fore and aft" carry may be used, 
as shown in Fig. 15. To pick up patient by this 
method, one person should stand at the head and 
pass his arms beneath the back, under the arm- 
pits, and lock fingers over chest, while the bearer 
at the feet should pass one hand around each knee 
and carry a leg under each arm, as shown. 




Vr^zo 



193 



194 The Book of Camping 

People who are unconscious from smoke, gas, 
drowning, etc., and who have no wounds which 
would be opened, or bones broken, to be made 
worse by rough handling, may be carried across 
one's shoulders, thus leaving one hand free. 
There are several different ways of getting a 
patient onto one's shoulders and while is seems 
like a difficult matter at first, once the knack is 
acquired and the trick learned, you will find it 
easy to pick up and carry a person who weighs 
more than yourself. The best of these methods 
for shouldering a body is that known as the fire- 
man's lift and is accomplished as follows: 

First, — Kneel on both knees at the patient's head, fac- 
ing him; and turn him face down and straighten his 
arms at sides. Fig. 16. 

Second, — ^Pass hands under his body, grasp him under 
armpits, raise the body as high as possible while 
still kneeling and let it rest on your knees. Fig. 17. 

Third, — ^Pass both arms around waist of patient and lift 
him to an upright position with the body towards 
your right shoulder and thus rise. Fig. 18. 

Fourth, — Seize the patient's right hand in your left hand 
and throw his right arm around your neck. Stoop 
down and place your head beneath his body and at 
the same time pass your right arm around his legs. 



Emergency Hints 195 

thus bringing his weight on the centre of your back. 
Fig. 22. 
Fifth, — Seize his right hand or wrist with your right hand, 
balance his body carefully on your shoulders and 
stand erect. Fig. 20. 

All of these various matters should be practised 
from time to time, and it is a splendid idea to 
have regular practice drills at stated times while 
camping out. The more familiar you become 
with each motion, action and treatment, the bet- 
ter fitted will you be to cope with any emergency 
which may arise, and, moreover, you will not be so 
liable to lose your head or get frightened at the 
sight of bleeding wounds or broken bones. But 
no matter how well trained you may be in first 
aid, how much self-control you may have, or how 
skilled you are in simple medicine or surgery, 
dofCt fail to secure competent medical or surgical 
aid at the earliest moment, if an injury or illness 
gives the least sign of being serious. An ounce 
of prevention is worth tons of cure in the woods. 



THE END 




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